AccScience Publishing / JCBP / Online First / DOI: 10.36922/JCBP026120014
BRIEF REPORT

Single versus repeated elicitors of embitterment

Michael Linden1 Franziska Schwertfeger1 Christopher Arnold2*
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1 Department of Psychosomatic Medicine, Charité University Medicine Berlin, Berlin, Germany
2 Department of Psychotherapy and Diagnostics, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
Received: 16 March 2026 | Revised: 21 April 2026 | Accepted: 6 May 2026 | Published online: 26 May 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
Abstract

In clinical practice and diagnostic guidelines, a distinction is made between trauma after single and repetitive negative events (complex trauma). While post-traumatic embitterment disorder (PTED) is defined as a reaction to a specific elicitor, an open question is whether there is also complex embitterment. A convenience sample of 118 psychotherapy outpatients was asked to answer the PTED Scale, the General Health Questionnaire, the Personality Style Inventory, an aggressiveness scale, the Beck Depression Inventory, and whether feelings of embitterment were caused by a single or multiple events. A non-elevated PTED Scale score of <1.5 was found in 31.4%, an elevated score of ≥1.5 and <2.5 in 50%, and a clinically relevant score of ≥2.5 in 18.6% of psychotherapy patients. When examining patients with an elevated score, a single elicitor was reported by 24.7% and multiple stressors by 75.3%. Embitterment was prevalent in psychotherapy patients, with approximately two-thirds showing elevated and nearly one-fifth showing clinically relevant severity. Patients more frequently attributed their embitterment to multiple events than to a single event.

Keywords
Clinical trials
Moral injury
Prevalence
Interpersonal trauma
Interpersonal behavior
Funding
The authors have no financial support to declare.
Conflict of interest
Michael Linden serves as one of the Editors-in-Chief of this journal, but was not in any way involved in the editorial and peer-review process conducted for this paper, directly or indirectly. The other authors report there are no competing interests to declare.
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Journal of Clinical and Basic Psychosomatics, Electronic ISSN: 2972-4414 Print ISSN: 3060-8562, Published by AccScience Publishing