AccScience Publishing / MSAM / Online First / DOI: 10.36922/MSAM026040007
Submit to MSAM
Cite this article
21
Download
140
Views
Journal Browser
Volume | Year
Issue
Search
Forthcoming Issue
Current Issue
View All
News and Announcements
View All
ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Build orientation-dependent evolution of residual stress, crystallographic texture, and mechanical anisotropy in laser powder bed-fused IN625

Sheeza Khan1 ,  A. Raja Annamalai2*
Show Less
1 School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
2 Centre for Innovative Manufacturing Research, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
MSAM, 026040007 https://doi.org/10.36922/MSAM026040007
Received: 21 January 2026 | Revised: 20 February 2026 | Accepted: 2 March 2026 | Published online: 25 May 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
Download PDF
XML
Cite
Abstract

The mechanical anisotropy of laser powder bed-fused IN625 necessitates consideration of build orientation, as inherent directional solidification during additive manufacturing induces mechanical anisotropy and affects grain morphology, texture evolution, and mechanical behavior, thereby requiring an orientation-specific evaluation to optimize structural integrity. This paper presents the structure–property relationships of as-built specimens fabricated in three distinct build orientations. To assess orientation-dependent effects, tensile specimens were printed in three build orientations: 0°, 45°, and 90°. Grain morphology, grain size distribution, and microstructural variation were investigated using electron backscatter diffraction. The statistical distribution of grain orientation and pole figure analysis revealed significant textural variation and directional dependence, consistent with anisotropic behavior. The findings demonstrate that build orientation significantly influences the structural integrity of laser powder bed-fused IN625 components. Among the examined orientations, the 0° condition exhibits a pronounced <001> texture aligned with the build direction. Pole figure and orientation distribution function analyses confirm a dominant cube texture at 0°, which transitions to a cube–goss texture at 45°. Mechanical testing corroborates the electron backscatter diffraction results, with the 0° orientation exhibiting the highest yield strength (727 MPa) and ultimate tensile strength (963 MPa), attributed to a favorable alignment of load-bearing grains. Residual stress-assisted characterization indicates that nominal in-plane compressive stresses predominate in the 0° orientation.

Keywords
Additive manufacturing
Laser powder bed fusion
IN625
Residual stress
Crystallographic texture
Orientation studies
Funding
This study was supported by the Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi, India, under the “Promotion of University Research and Scientific Excellence (PURSE)” program (Grant No. SR/PURSE/2020/34 [TPN 56960]) for the procurement of a Direct Metal Laser Sintering machine (EOSM290 Machine).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
  1. Bandyopadhyay A, Bose S. Additive Manufacturing. 3rd ed. CRC Press. 2025. doi: 10.1201/9781003343868

 

  1. Bourell DL. Perspectives on Additive Manufacturing. Annu Rev Mater Res. 2016;46(1):1-18. doi: 10.1146/annurev-matsci-070115-031606

 

  1. Herzog D, Seyda V, Wycisk E, Emmelmann C. Additive manufacturing of metals. Acta Mater. 2016;117:371-392. doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2016.07.019

 

  1. Funch CV, Proust G. Laser-based additive manufacturing of refractory metals and their alloys: A review. Addit Manuf. 2024;94:104464. doi: 10.1016/j.addma.2024.104464

 

  1. Li Y, Lv H, Yuan Q, et al. High-temperature alloys: Recent advances from conventional alloys to complex concentrated systems. J Mater Res Technol. 2025;36:3298-3318. doi: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2025.04.027

 

  1. Bandyopadhyay A, Zhang Y, Bose S. Recent developments in metal additive manufacturing. Curr Opin Chem Eng. 2020;28:96-104. doi: 10.1016/j.coche.2020.03.001

 

  1. Tang H, Huang H, Liu C, Liu Z, Yan W. Multi-Scale modelling of structure-property relationship in additively manufactured metallic materials. Int J Mech Sci. 2021;194:106185. doi: 10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2020.106185

 

  1. Hariharan VS, Kaushik R, Murty BS, Phanikumar G. Effect of laser scan rotation on the microstructure and mechanical properties of laser powder bed fused Haynes 282. Materialia. 2024;33:101992. doi: 10.1016/j.mtla.2023.101992

 

  1. Zhong M, Liu W. Laser surface cladding: The state of the art and challenges. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part C J Mech Eng Sci. 2010;224(5):1041-1060. doi: 10.1243/09544062JMES1782

 

  1. Frazier WE. Metal Additive Manufacturing: A Review. J Mater Eng Perform. 2014;23(6):1917-1928. doi: 10.1007/s11665-014-0958-z

 

  1. Das A, Yadav V, AlMangour B, et al. Additive manufacturing of graphene reinforced 316L stainless steel composites with tailored microstructure and mechanical properties. Mater Chem Phys. 2023;303:127826. doi: 10.1016/j.matchemphys.2023.127826

 

  1. Singh UP, Shukla A, Swaminathan S, Phanikumar G. Effect of build orientations on residual stress, microstructure, and mechanical properties of additively manufactured alloy-718 components. J Manuf Process. 2024;113:1-15. doi: 10.1016/j.jmapro.2024.01.047

 

  1. Wei HL, Mazumder J, DebRoy T. Evolution of solidification texture during additive manufacturing. Sci Rep. 2015;5(1):16446. doi: 10.1038/srep16446

 

  1. Lee Y, Nordin M, Babu SS, Farson DF. Effect of Fluid Convection on Dendrite Arm Spacing in Laser Deposition. Metall Mater Trans B. 2014;45(4):1520-1529. doi: 10.1007/s11663-014-0054-7

 

  1. Pant P. Residual Stress Distributions in Additively Manufactured Parts : Effect of Build Orientation. Vol 1869. Linköping University Electronic Press. 2020. doi: 10.3384/lic.diva-164108

 

  1. Magana-Carranza R, Sutcliffe CJ, Patterson EA. The effect of processing parameters and material properties on residual forces induced in Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF). Addit Manuf. 2021;46:102192. doi: 10.1016/j.addma.2021.102192

 

  1. Mercelis P, Kruth J. Residual stresses in selective laser sintering and selective laser melting. Rapid Prototyp J. 2006;12(5):254-265. doi: 10.1108/13552540610707013

 

  1. Li C, Liu ZY, Fang XY, Guo YB. Residual Stress in Metal Additive Manufacturing. Procedia CIRP. 2018;71:348-353. doi: 10.1016/j.procir.2018.05.039

 

  1. Uddin Z, Butt MM, Kvvssn V, Salamci MU, Kizil H. Understanding the Effects of Manufacturing Attributes on Damage Tolerance of Additively Manufactured Parts and Exploring Synergy Among Process‐Structure‐Properties. A Comprehensive Review. Eng Rep. 2024:e13020. doi: 10.1002/eng2.13020

 

  1. Khairallah SA, Anderson AT, Rubenchik A, King WE. Laser powder-bed fusion additive manufacturing: Physics of complex melt flow and formation mechanisms of pores, spatter, and denudation zones. Acta Mater. 2016;108:36-45. doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2016.02.014

 

  1. Carroll BE, Palmer TA, Beese AM. Anisotropic tensile behavior of Ti–6Al–4V components fabricated with directed energy deposition additive manufacturing. Acta Mater. 2015;87:309-320. doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2014.12.054

 

  1. Marques A, Cunha Â, Silva MR, et al. Inconel 718 produced by laser powder bed fusion: an overview of the influence of processing parameters on microstructural and mechanical properties. Int J Adv Manuf Technol. 2022;121(9-10):5651- 5675. doi: 10.1007/s00170-022-09693-0

 

  1. Courtright ZS, Venkatraman A, Yucel B, Adapa VSK, Diaz A, Kalidindi SR. High-throughput experiments and machine learning strategies for efficient exploration of additively manufactured Inconel 625. Acta Mater. 2025;288:120875. doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2025.120875

 

  1. Sun SH, Koizumi Y, Saito T, et al. Electron beam additive manufacturing of Inconel 718 alloy rods: Impact of build direction on microstructure and high-temperature tensile properties. Addit Manuf. 2018;23:457-470. doi: 10.1016/j.addma.2018.08.017

 

  1. Shamsdini S, Pirgazi H, Ghoncheh MH, et al. A relationship between the build and texture orientation in tensile loading of the additively manufactured maraging steels. Addit Manuf. 2021;41:101954. doi: 10.1016/j.addma.2021.101954

 

  1. Kuo YL, Horikawa S, Kakehi K. Effects of build direction and heat treatment on creep properties of Ni-base superalloy built up by additive manufacturing. Scr Mater. 2017;129:74- 78. doi: 10.1016/j.scriptamat.2016.10.035

 

  1. Kalidindi SR, De Graef M. Materials Data Science: Current Status and Future Outlook. Annu Rev Mater Res. 2015;45(1):171-193. doi: 10.1146/annurev-matsci-070214-020844

 

  1. Munusamy S, J J. Effect of build orientation on the microstructure and mechanical properties of wire arc additive manufactured grade 91 steel/monel 400 bimetallic components. Vacuum. 2024;227:113429. doi: 10.1016/j.vacuum.2024.113429

 

  1. Nyyssönen T, Gazder AA, Hielscher R, Niessen F. Habit plane determination from reconstructed parent phase orientation maps. Acta Mater. 2023;255:119035. doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2023.119035

 

  1. Prevey PS. X-Ray Diffraction Residual Stress Techniques. In: Whan RE, ed. Materials Characterization. ASM International. 1986:380-392. doi: 10.31399/asm.hb.v10.a0001761

 

  1. Withers PJ, Bhadeshia HKDH. Residual stress. Part 1 – Measurement techniques. Mater Sci Technol. 2001;17(4):355- 365. doi: 10.1179/026708301101509980

 

  1. Withers PJ. Residual stress and its role in failure. Rep Prog Phys. 2007;70(12):2211-2264. doi: 10.1088/0034-4885/70/12/R04

 

  1. Munusamy S, Jerald J. Microstructural Characterization, Residual Stress Evaluation and Deformation Behaviour of Wire Arc Additive Manufactured Grade 91 Steel and Monel 400 Bimetallic Components. Met Mater Int. 2025;31(8):2396- 2416. doi: 10.1007/s12540-025-01890-2

 

  1. Sander G, Babu AP, Gao X, Jiang D, Birbilis N. On the effect of build orientation and residual stress on the corrosion of 316L stainless steel prepared by selective laser melting. Corros Sci. 2021;179:109149. doi: 10.1016/j.corsci.2020.109149

 

  1. Vishwakarma J, Chattopadhyay K, Santhi Srinivas NC. Effect of build orientation on microstructure and tensile behaviour of selectively laser melted M300 maraging steel. Mater Sci Eng A. 2020;798:140130. doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2020.140130

 

  1. Salmi A, Piscopo G, Atzeni E, Minetola P, Iuliano L. On the Effect of Part Orientation on Stress Distribution in AlSi10Mg Specimens Fabricated by Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF). Procedia CIRP. 2018;67:191-196. doi: 10.1016/j.procir.2017.12.198

 

  1. Bartlett JL, Li X. An overview of residual stresses in metal powder bed fusion. Addit Manuf. 2019;27:131-149. doi: 10.1016/j.addma.2019.02.020

 

  1. DebRoy T, Wei HL, Zuback JS, et al. Additive manufacturing of metallic components – Process, structure and properties. Prog Mater Sci. 2018;92:112-224. doi: 10.1016/j.pmatsci.2017.10.001

 

  1. Gäumann M, Trivedi R, Kurz W. Nucleation ahead of the advancing interface in directional solidification. Mater Sci Eng A. 1997;226-228:763-769. doi: 10.1016/S0921-5093(97)80081-0

 

  1. Kurz W, Bezençon C, Gäumann M. Columnar to equiaxed transition in solidification processing. Sci Technol Adv Mater. 2001;2(1):185-191. doi: 10.1016/S1468-6996(01)00047-X

 

  1. Roebuck B. Measurement of grain size and size distribution in engineering materials. Mater Sci Technol. 2000;16(10):1167- 1174. doi: 10.1179/026708300101506911

 

  1. Kljestan N, Diaz Vallejo N, Huynh T, McWilliams BA, Sohn Y, Knezevic M. Flaw type and build orientation dependent tensile and creep strength of 316L stainless steel fabricated via laser powder bed fusion. Mater Sci Eng A. 2025;922:147671. doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2024.147671

 

  1. Tekumalla S, Selvarajou B, Raman S, Gao S, Seita M. The role of the solidification structure on orientation-dependent hardness in stainless steel 316L produced by laser powder bed fusion. Mater Sci Eng A. 2022;833:142493. doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2021.142493

 

  1. Wang X, Muñiz-Lerma JA, Sanchez-Mata O, Atabay SE, Attarian Shandiz M, Brochu M. Single-crystalline-like stainless steel 316L with different geometries fabricated by laser powder bed fusion. Prog Addit Manuf. 2020;5(1):41-49. doi: 10.1007/s40964-020-00123-9

 

  1. Park H, Mullin KM, Kumar V, Wander O, Pollock TM, Zhu Y. Resolving thermal gradients and solidification velocities during laser melting of a refractory alloy. Addit Manuf. 2025;105:104750. doi: 10.1016/j.addma.2025.104750

 

  1. Ishimoto T, Morita N, Ozasa R, et al. Superimpositional design of crystallographic textures and macroscopic shapes via metal additive manufacturing—Game-change in component design. Acta Mater. 2025;286:120709. doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2025.120709

 

  1. Zhang BB, Tang YG, Mei QS, Li XY, Lu K. Inhibiting creep in nanograined alloys with stable grain boundary networks. Science. 2022;378(6620):659-663. doi: 10.1126/science.abq7739

 

  1. Naskar S, Suryakumar S, Panigrahi BB. Post-processing of Inconel 718 superalloy by Laser-based Powder Bed Fusion: Microstructures and properties evaluation. Mater Sci Eng A. 2025;921:147601. doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2024.147601

 

  1. Kishor G, Mugada KK, Mahto RP, Sivanandam A, Digavalli RK, Amirthalingam M. Constitutive modeling of high-temperature deformation, fracture mechanisms, and metallurgical study of WAAM-Deposited Inconel 625 alloy. Eng Fail Anal. 2025;171:109350. doi: 10.1016/j.engfailanal.2025.109350

 

  1. Sun SJ, Tian YZ, Lin HR, Wang ZJ, Zhang ZF. Revisiting the role of prestrain history in the mechanical properties of ultrafine-grained CoCrFeMnNi high-entropy alloy. Mater Sci Eng A. 2021;801:140398. doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2020.140398

 

  1. Li S, Guo C, Hao L, Kang Y, An Y. In-situ EBSD study of deformation behaviour of 600 MPa grade dual phase steel during uniaxial tensile tests. Mater Sci Eng A. 2019;759:624- 632. doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2019.05.083

 

  1. Pleass C, Jothi S, Krishnan M. Grain boundary and triple junction characteristics analytics of additive manufactured Inconel 625 superalloy using selective laser melting. Mater Sci Eng A. 2023;869:144744. doi: 10.1016/j.msea.2023.144744

 

  1. Liu M, Wang Q, Cai Y, et al. Dependence on Manufacturing Directions of Tensile Behavior and Microstructure Evolution of Selective Laser Melting Manufactured Inconel 625. J Mater Eng Perform. 2023;32(16):7488-7500. doi: 10.1007/s11665-022-07622-6

 

  1. Liu M, Wang Q, Cai Y, et al. Dependence on Manufacturing Directions of Tensile Behavior and Microstructure Evolution of Selective Laser Melting Manufactured Inconel 625. J Mater Eng Perform. 2023;32(16):7488-7500. doi: 10.1007/s11665-022-07622-6

 

  1. Alam K, Kim K bong, Jeong JW, Kwon YT, Yang S. Investigation of the strength-ductility tradeoff and controlling Cr23C6 carbides in Inconel 625 super alloy using high pressure heat treatment. J Alloys Compd. 2025;1017:179032. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2025.179032

 

  1. Su Y, Dai Z, Yang T, Wang Y, Liang X, Wu X. Study on hot deformation behavior and strengthening mechanism of Inconel 625 deposited metal at high temperature. J Mater Sci. 2021;56(29):16745-16761. doi: 10.1007/s10853-021-06357-4
Share
Back to top
Materials Science in Additive Manufacturing, Electronic ISSN: 2810-9635 Published by AccScience Publishing
We use cookies on our website to ensure you get the best experience.
Read more about our cookies here
Accept