AccScience Publishing / MI / Online First / DOI: 10.36922/MI025310072
Submit to MI
Cite this article
1
Download
29
Views
Journal Browser
Volume | Year
Issue
Search
Forthcoming Issue
Current Issue
View All
News and Announcements
View All
REVIEW ARTICLE

The role of fungi in colorectal cancer: Pathogenesis and therapeutic approaches

Yuzhi Gao1,2,3 ,  Nan Zhang3 ,  Tuo Ji1,2,3 ,  Kun Yu1,2,3,4 ,  Jiachen He1,2,3 ,  Xuzhu Gao1,2,3*
Show Less
1 Department of Central Laboratory, Lianyungang Clinical College, Jiangsu University, Lianyungang, Jiangsu, China
2 Institute of Clinical Oncology, The Second People’s Hospital of Lianyungang, Lianyungang, Jiangsu, China
3 Department of Life Sciences, Lianyungang Clinical College, Bengbu Medical University, Bengbu, Anhui, China
4 Department of Central Laboratory, The Second People’s Hospital of Lianyungang Affiliated to Kangda College of Nanjing Medical University, Lianyungang, Jiangsu, China
MI, 025310072 https://doi.org/10.36922/MI025310072
Received: 31 July 2025 | Revised: 9 January 2026 | Accepted: 3 February 2026 | Published online: 6 March 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
Download PDF
XML
Cite
Abstract

Colorectal cancer (CRC) remains one of the leading contributors to global cancer-associated deaths, with its development and progression closely influenced by the complex and evolving interplay between host and gut microbial communities. The gut fungal community has emerged as a crucial factor in the oncogenesis, progression, and treatment of CRC. Through multi-cohort fecal metagenomic analysis, it has been found that the gut fungal community structure of CRC patients undergoes significant changes, with pathogenic fungi becoming enriched and overall fungal diversity decreasing. In addition, fungal metabolites and other components are also associated with cancer development, including effects on cell proliferation, apoptosis, and immune responses. In terms of mechanisms, fungi may influence CRC progression by affecting intestinal immune responses, modulating inflammatory pathways, and interacting with bacteria. However, current research is mainly focused on correlation analysis, with causality remaining unclear. Moreover, the diversity of fungi across different populations limits their clinical application. This article examines the role of fungi in CRC onset and progression, summarizes current therapies, and outlines future research to support early diagnosis, precision treatment, and improved prognosis.

Keywords
Fungi
Colorectal cancer
Gut microbiota
Immunity
Funding
This study was supported by the 2024 Lianyungang Science and Technology Projects (grant number SF2435), the Lianyungang Anticancer Association Surface Project (grant number MS202407), and the Major Projects of Nanjing Medical University Kangda College (grant number KD2024KYJJ043).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare they have no competing interests.
References
  1. Qin J, Li R, Raes J, et al. A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature. 2010;464(7285):59-65. doi: 10.1038/nature08821

 

  1. Zhang D, Wang Y, Shen S, Hou Y, Chen Y, Wang T. The mycobiota of the human body: a spark can start a prairie fire. Gut Microbes. 2020;11(4):655-679. doi: 10.1080/19490976.2020.1731287

 

  1. Garrett WS. Cancer and the microbiota. Science. 2015;348(6230):80-86. doi: 10.1126/science.aaa4972

 

  1. Xavier JB, Young VB, Skufca J, et al. The Cancer Microbiome: Distinguishing Direct and Indirect Effects Requires a Systemic View. Trends Cancer. 2020;6(3):192-204. doi: 10.1016/j.trecan.2020.01.004

 

  1. Wheeler ML, Limon JJ, Underhill DM. Immunity t Commensal Fungi: Detente and Disease. Annu Rev Pathol. 2017;12:359-385. doi: 10.1146/annurev-pathol-052016-100342

 

  1. Wang ZK, Yang YS, Stefka AT, Sun G, Peng LH. Review article: fungal microbiota and digestive diseases. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2014;39(8):751-766 doi: 10.1111/apt.12665

 

  1. Okuno K, Tokunaga M, Von Hoff D, Kinugasa Y, Goel A. Intratumoral Malassezia globosa Levels Predict Survival and Therapeutic Response to Adjuvant Chemotherapy in Patients With Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma. Gastroenterology. 2023;165(2):502-504.e2. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2023.04.017

 

  1. Malik A, Sharma D, Malireddi RKS, et al. SYKCARD9 Signaling Axis Promotes Gut Fungi-Mediated Inflammasome Activation to Restrict Colitis and Colon Cancer. Immunity. 2018;49(3):515-530.e5. doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2018.08.024

 

  1. Yang L, Li A, Wang Y, Zhang Y. Intratumoral microbiota: roles in cancer initiation, development and therapeutic efficacy. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2023;8(1):35. doi: 10.1038/s41392-022-01304-4

 

  1. Azevedo MM, Pina-Vaz C, Baltazar F. Microbes and Cancer: Friends or Faux? Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(9):3115. doi: 10.3390/ijms21093115

 

  1. Narunsky-Haziza L, Sepich-Poore GD, Livyatan I, et al. Pancancer analyses reveal cancer-type-specific fungal ecologies and bacteriome interactions. Cell. 2022;185(20):3789-3806.e17. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2022.09.005

 

  1. Wang M, Yu F, Li P. Intratumor microbiota in cancer pathogenesis and immunity: from mechanisms of action to therapeutic opportunities. Front Immunol. 2023;14:1269054. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1269054

 

  1. Dohlman AB, Klug J, Mesko M, et al. A pan-cancer mycobiome analysis reveals fungal involvement in gastrointestinal and lung tumors. Cell. 2022;185(20):3807- 3822.e12. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2022.09.015

 

  1. Bennett JW, Klich M. Mycotoxins. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2003;16(3):497-516. doi: 10.1128/CMR.16.3.497-516.2003

 

  1. Scanlan PD, Marchesi JR. Micro-eukaryotic diversity of the human distal gut microbiota: qualitative assessment using culture-dependent and -independent analysis of faeces. ISME J. 2008;2(12):1183-1193. doi: 10.1038/ismej.2008.76

 

  1. Biasoli MS, Tosello ME, Magaro HM. Adherence of Candida strains isolated from the human gastrointestinal tract. Mycoses. 2002;45(11-12):465-469. doi: 10.1046/j.1439-0507.2002.00793.x

 

  1. Li Q, Wang C, Zhang Q, et al. Use of 18S ribosomal DNA polymerase chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis to study composition of fungal community in 2 patients with intestinal transplants. Hum Pathol.2012;43(8):1273-1281. doi: 10.1016/j.humpath.2011.09.017

 

  1. Li Q, Wang C, Tang C, He Q, Li N, Li J. Dysbiosis of gut fungal microbiota is associated with mucosal inflammation in Crohn’s disease. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2014;48(6):513-523. doi: 10.1097/MCG.0000000000000035

 

  1. Li J, Chen D, Yu B, et al. Fungi in Gastrointestinal Tracts of Human and Mice: from Community to Functions. Microb Ecol. 2018;75(4):821-829. doi: 10.1007/s00248-017-1105-9

 

  1. Santus W, Devlin JR, Behnsen J. Crossing Kingdoms: How the Mycobiota and Fungal-Bacterial Interactions Impact Host Health and Disease. Infect Immun. 2021;89(4):e00648-20. doi: 10.1128/IAI.00648-20

 

  1. Hallen-Adams HE, Suhr MJ. Fungi in the healthy human gastrointestinal tract. Virulence. 2017;8(3):352-358. doi: 10.1080/21505594.2016.1247140

 

  1. Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018;68(6):394-424. doi: 10.3322/caac.21492

 

  1. Jemal A, Siegel R, Ward E, Murray T, Xu J, Thun MJ. Cancer statistics, 2007. CA Cancer J Clin. 2007;57(1):43-66. doi: 10.3322/canjclin.57.1.43

 

  1. Scupham AJ, Presley LL, Wei B, et al. Abundant and diverse fungal microbiota in the murine intestine. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2006;72(1):793-801. doi: 10.1128/AEM.72.1.793-801.2006

 

  1. Lin Y, Lau HC, Liu Y, et al. Altered Mycobiota Signatures and Enriched Pathogenic Aspergillus rambellii Are Associated With Colorectal Cancer Based on Multicohort Fecal Metagenomic Analyses. Gastroenterology. 2022;163(4):908-921. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2022.06.038

 

  1. Coker OO, Nakatsu G, Dai RZ, et al. Enteric fungal microbiota dysbiosis and ecological alterations in colorectal cancer. Gut. 2019;68(4):654-662. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2018-317178

 

  1. Zhu Y, Shi T, Lu X, et al. Fungal-induced glycolysis in macrophages promotes colon cancer by enhancing innate lymphoid cell secretion of IL-22. EMBO J. 2021;40(11):e105320. doi: 10.15252/embj.2020105320

 

  1. Li X, Feng J, Wang Z, Liu G, Wang F. Features of combined gut bacteria and fungi from a Chinese cohort of colorectal cancer, colorectal adenoma, and post-operative patients. Front Microbiol. 2023;14:1236583. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1236583

 

  1. Kang Z, Jiang S, Fang JY, Chen H. Intestinal dysbiosis and colorectal cancer. Chin Med J. 2025;138(11):1266-1287. doi: 10.1097/CM9.0000000000003617

 

  1. Hager CL, Isham N, Schrom KP, et al. Effects of a Novel Probiotic Combination on Pathogenic Bacterial-Fungal Polymicrobial Biofilms. mBio. 2019;10(2):e00338-19. doi: 10.1128/mBio.00338-19

 

  1. Kong HH, Segre JA. Cultivating fungal research. Science. 2020;368(6489):365-366. doi: 10.1126/science.aaz8086

 

  1. Tang J, Iliev ID, Brown J, Underhill DM, Funari VA. Mycobiome: Approaches to analysis of intestinal fungi. J Immunol Methods. 2015;421:112-121. doi: 10.1016/j.jim.2015.04.004

 

  1. Nash AK, Auchtung TA, Wong MC, et al. The gut mycobiome of the Human Microbiome Project healthy cohort. Microbiome. 2017;5(1):153. doi: 10.1186/s40168-017-0373-4

 

  1. Almeida F, Rodrigues ML, Coelho C. The Still Underestimated Problem of Fungal Diseases Worldwide. Front Microbiol. 2019;10:214. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00214

 

  1. Fisher MC, Hawkins NJ, Sanglard D, Gurr SJ. Worldwide emergence of resistance to antifungal drugs challenges human health and food security. Science. 2018;360(6390):739-742. doi: 10.1126/science.aap7999

 

  1. Chen CJ, Wang LY, Lu SN, et al. Elevated aflatoxin exposure and increased risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology. 1996;24(1):38-42. doi: 10.1002/hep.510240108

 

  1. Ekwomadu T, Mwanza M, Musekiwa A. Mycotoxin-Linked Mutations and Cancer Risk: A Global Health Issue. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(13):7754. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19137754

 

  1. Kusunoki M, Misumi J, Shimada T, et al. Long-term administration of the fungus toxin, sterigmatocystin, induces intestinal metaplasia and increases the proliferative activity of PCNA, p53, and MDM2 in the gastric mucosa of aged Mongolian gerbils. Environ Health Prev Med. 2011;16(4):224-231. doi: 10.1007/s12199-010-0190-x

 

  1. Suzuki A, Iwasaki M, Kato M, Wagai N. Sequential operation of ceramide synthesis and ICE cascade in CPT-11-initiated apoptotic death signaling. Exp Cell Res. 1997;233(1):41-47. doi: 10.1006/excr.1997.3498

 

  1. Persson EC, Sewram V, Evans AA, et al. Fumonisin B1 and risk of hepatocellular carcinoma in two Chinese cohorts. Food Chem Toxicol. 2012;50(3-4):679-683. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2011.11.029

 

  1. Mondani L, Palumbo R, Tsitsigiannis D, Perdikis D, Mazzoni E, Battilani P. Pest Management and Ochratoxin A Contamination in Grapes: A Review. Toxins. 2020;12(5):303. doi: 10.3390/toxins12050303

 

  1. Pfohl-Leszkowicz A, Manderville RA. An update on direct genotoxicity as a molecular mechanism of ochratoxin A carcinogenicity. Chem Res Toxicol. 2012;25(2):252-262. doi: 10.1021/tx200430f

 

  1. Hsia CC, Wu ZY, Li YS, Zhang F, Sun ZT. Nivalenol, a main Fusarium toxin in dietary foods from high-risk areas of cancer of esophagus and gastric cardia in China, induced benign and malignant tumors in mice. Oncol Rep. 2004;12(2):449-456. doi: 10.3892/or.12.2.449

 

  1. Djouina M, Waxin C, Caboche S, et al. Low dose dietary contamination with deoxynivalenol mycotoxin exacerbates enteritis and colorectal cancer in mice. Sci Total Environ. 2023;900:16572. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165722

 

  1. Robert H, Payros D, Pinton P, Theodorou V, Mercier-Bonin M, Oswald IP. Impact of mycotoxins on the intestine: are mucus and microbiota new targets? J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev. 2017;20(5):249-275. doi: 10.1080/10937404.2017.1326071

 

  1. Lebrun B, Tardivel C, Felix B, et al. Dysregulation of energy balance by trichothecene mycotoxins: Mechanisms and prospects. Neurotoxicology. 2015;49:15-27. doi: 10.1016/j.neuro.2015.04.009

 

  1. Liu NN, Jiao N, Tan JC, et al. Multi-kingdom microbiota analyses identify bacterial-fungal interactions and biomarkers of colorectal cancer across cohorts. Nat Microbiol. 2022;7(2):238-250. doi: 10.1038/s41564-021-01030-7

 

  1. Luan C, Xie L, Yang X, et al. Dysbiosis of fungal microbiota in the intestinal mucosa of patients with colorectal adenomas. Sci Rep. 2015;5:7980. doi: 10.1038/srep07980

 

  1. Richard ML, Lamas B, Liguori G, Hoffmann TW, Sokol H. Gut fungal microbiota: the Yin and Yang of inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2015;21(3):656-665. doi: 10.1097/MIB.0000000000000261

 

  1. Alnuaimi AD, Wiesenfeld D, O’Brien-Simpson NM, Reynolds EC, Peng B, McCullough MJ. The development and validation of a rapid genetic method for species identification and genotyping of medically important fungal pathogens using high-resolution melting curve analysis. Mol Oral Microbiol. 2014;29(3):117-130. doi: 10.1111/omi.12050

 

  1. Li JQ, Li JL, Xie YH, et al. Saccharomyces cerevisiae may serve as a probiotic in colorectal cancer by promoting cancer cell apoptosis. J Dig Dis. 2020;21(10):571-582. doi: 10.1111/1751-2980.12930

 

  1. Zhang Z, Zheng Y, Chen Y, et al. Gut fungi enhances immunosuppressive function of myeloid-derived suppressor cells by activating PKM2-dependent glycolysis to promote colorectal tumorigenesis. Exp Hematol Oncol. 2022;11(1):88. doi: 10.1186/s40164-022-00334-6

 

  1. McBride AE. Messenger RNA transport in the opportunistic fungal pathogen Candida albicans. Curr Genet. 2017;63(6):989-995. doi: 10.1007/s00294-017-0707-6

 

  1. Glinka P, Nowacka K, Kulesza K, Ejdys E, Dynowska M. Share of the Saccharomyces genus in the mycobiota of the gastrointestinal tract of oncology patients – potential effects of a fruit-based diet. Ann Parasitol. 2018;64(3):199-202. doi: 10.17420/ap6403.152

 

  1. Wirth F, Goldani LZ. Epidemiology of Rhodotorula: an emerging pathogen. Interdiscip Perspect Infect Dis. 2012;2012:465717. doi: 10.1155/2012/465717

 

  1. Bajaj JS, Liu EJ, Kheradman R, et al. Fungal dysbiosis in cirrhosis. Gut. 2018;67(6):1146-1154. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2016-313170

 

  1. Jawhara S, Habib K, Maggiotto F, et al. Modulation of intestinal inflammation by yeasts and cell wall extracts: strain dependence and unexpected anti-inflammatory role of glucan fractions. PLoS One. 2012;7(7):e40648. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0040648

 

  1. Gao R, Kong C, Li H, et al. Dysbiosis signature of mycobiota in colon polyp and colorectal cancer. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2017;36(12):2457-2468. doi: 10.1007/s10096-017-3085-6

 

  1. Gao R, Kong C, Huang L, et al. Mucosa-associated microbiota signature in colorectal cancer. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2017;36(11):2073-2083. doi: 10.1007/s10096-017-3026-4

 

  1. Quero L, Girard V, Pawtowski A, et al. Development and application of MALDI-TOF MS for identification of food spoilage fungi. Food Microbiol. 2019;81:76-88. doi: 10.1016/j.fm.2018.05.001

 

  1. Dixon DM, Merz WG, Elliott HL, Macleay S. Experimental central nervous system phaeohyphomycosis following intranasal inoculation of Xylohypha bantiana in cortisonetreated mice. Mycopathologia. 1987;100(3):145-153. doi: 10.1007/BF00437040

 

  1. Fothergill AW. Identification of dematiaceous fungi and their role in human disease. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;22(suppl 2):S179-S184. doi: 10.1093/clinids/22.supplement_2.s179

 

  1. Brown GD. Innate antifungal immunity: the key role of phagocytes. Annu Rev Immunol. 2011;29:1-21. doi: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-030409-101229

 

  1. Romani L. Immunity to fungal infections. Nat Rev Immunol. 2011;11(4):275-288. doi: 10.1038/nri2939

 

  1. Balkwill F, Mantovani A. Inflammation and cancer: back to Virchow? Lancet. 2001;357(9255):539-545. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04046-0

 

  1. Mantovani A, Allavena P, Sica A, Balkwill F. Cancer-related inflammation. Nature. 2008;454(7203):436-444. doi: 10.1038/nature07205

 

  1. Netea MG, Balkwill F, Chonchol M, et al. A guiding map for inflammation. Nat Immunol. 2017;18(8):826-831. doi: 10.1038/ni.3790

 

  1. Rubin DC, Shaker A, Levin MS. Chronic intestinal inflammation: inflammatory bowel disease and colitisassociated colon cancer. Front Immunol. 2012;3:107. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2012.00107

 

  1. Baker AM, Cross W, Curtius K, et al. Evolutionary history of human colitis-associated colorectal cancer. Gut. 2019;68(6):985-995. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2018-316191

 

  1. Eaden JA, Abrams KR, Mayberry JF. The risk of colorectal cancer in ulcerative colitis: a meta-analysis. Gut. 2001;48(4):526-535. doi: 10.1136/gut.48.4.526

 

  1. Canavan C, Abrams KR, Mayberry J. Meta-analysis: colorectal and small bowel cancer risk in patients with Crohn’s disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2006;23(8):1097-1104. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2006.02854.x

 

  1. Lee TC, Huang YC, Lu YZ, Yeh YC, Yu LC. Hypoxia-induced intestinal barrier changes in balloon-assisted enteroscopy. J Physiol. 2018;596(15):3411-3424. doi: 10.1113/JP275277

 

  1. Grivennikov SI, Wang K, Mucida D, et al. Adenoma-linked barrier defects and microbial products drive IL-23/IL-17-mediated tumour growth. Nature. 2012;491(7423):254-258. doi: 10.1038/nature11465

 

  1. Tanaka T, Kohno H, Suzuki R, et al. Dextran sodium sulfate strongly promotes colorectal carcinogenesis in Apc(Min/+) mice: inflammatory stimuli by dextran sodium sulfate results in development of multiple colonic neoplasms. Int J Cancer. 2006;118(1):25-34. doi: 10.1002/ijc.21282

 

  1. Kosa P, Szabo R, Molinolo AA, Bugge TH. Suppression of Tumorigenicity-14, encoding matriptase, is a critical suppressor of colitis and colitis-associated colon carcinogenesis. Oncogene. 2012;31(32):3679-3695. doi: 10.1038/onc.2011.545

 

  1. Goodman B, Gardner H. The microbiome and cancer. J Pathol. 2018;244(5):667-676. doi: 10.1002/path.5047

 

  1. Song X, Gao H, Lin Y, et al. Alterations in the microbiota drive interleukin-17C production from intestinal epithelial cells to promote tumorigenesis. Immunity. 2014;40(1):140-152. doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2013.11.018

 

  1. Cremonesi E, Governa V, Garzon JFG, et al. Gut microbiota modulate T cell trafficking into human colorectal cancer. Gut. 2018;67(11):1984-1994. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2016-313498

 

  1. Kortylewski M, Xin H, Kujawski M, et al. Regulation of the IL-23 and IL-12 balance by Stat3 signaling in the tumor microenvironment. Cancer Cell. 2009;15(2):114-123. doi: 10.1016/j.ccr.2008.12.018

 

  1. Wang K, Kim MK, Di Caro G, et al. Interleukin-17 receptor a signaling in transformed enterocytes promotes early colorectal tumorigenesis. Immunity. 2014;41(6):1052-1063. doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2014.11.009

 

  1. Shaked H, Hofseth LJ, Chumanevich A, et al. Chronic epithelial NF-κB activation accelerates APC loss and intestinal tumor initiation through iNOS up-regulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2012;109(35):14007-14012. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1211509109

 

  1. Tilstra JS, Robinson AR, Wang J, et al. NF-κB inhibition delays DNA damage-induced senescence and aging in mice. J Clin Invest. 2012;122(7):2601-2612. doi: 10.1172/JCI45785

 

  1. Greten FR, Eckmann L, Greten TF, et al. IKKbeta links inflammation and tumorigenesis in a mouse model of colitis-associated cancer. Cell. 2004;118(3):285-296. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2004.07.013

 

  1. Schwitalla S, Fingerle AA, Cammareri P, et al. Intestinal tumorigenesis initiated by dedifferentiation and acquisition of stem-cell-like properties. Cell. 2013;152(1-2):25-38. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2012.12.012

 

  1. Kojima M, Morisaki T, Sasaki N, et al. Increased nuclear factor-kB activation in human colorectal carcinoma and its correlation with tumor progression. Anticancer Res. 2004;24(2B):675-681.

 

  1. Karin M, Greten FR. NF-kappaB: linking inflammation and immunity to cancer development and progression. Nat Rev Immunol. 2005;5(10):749-759. doi: 10.1038/nri1703

 

  1. Terzić J, Grivennikov S, Karin E, Karin M. Inflammation and colon cancer. Gastroenterology. 2010;138(6):2101-2114.e5. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2010.01.058

 

  1. Ramakrishnan SK, Zhang H, Ma X, et al. Intestinal noncanonical NFκB signaling shapes the local and systemic immune response. Nat Commun. 2019;10(1):660. doi: 10.1038/s41467-019-08581-8

 

  1. Schwitalla S, Ziegler PK, Horst D, et al. Loss of p53 in enterocytes generates an inflammatory microenvironment enabling invasion and lymph node metastasis of carcinogen-induced colorectal tumors. Cancer Cell. 2013;23(1):93-106. doi: 10.1016/j.ccr.2012.11.014

 

  1. Sato Y, Takahashi S, Kinouchi Y, et al. IL-10 deficiency leads to somatic mutations in a model of IBD. Carcinogenesis. 2006;27(5):1068-1073. doi: 10.1093/carcin/bgi327

 

  1. Filler SG, Pfunder AS, Spellberg BJ, Spellberg JP, Edwards JE Jr. Candida albicans stimulates cytokine production and leukocyte adhesion molecule expression by endothelial cells. Infect Immun. 1996;64(7):2609-2617. doi: 10.1128/iai.64.7.2609-2617.1996

 

  1. Galloway-Pena J, Iliev ID, McAllister F. Fungi in cancer. Nat Rev Cancer. 2024;24(5):295-298. doi: 10.1038/s41568-024-00665-y

 

  1. Kaźmierczak-Siedlecka K, Dvořak A, Folwarski M, Daca A, Przewłocka K, Makarewicz W. Fungal Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis and Its Role in Colorectal, Oral, and Pancreatic Carcinogenesis. Cancers. 2020;12(5):1326. doi: 10.3390/cancers12051326

 

  1. Hold GL, Allen-Vercoe E. Gut microbial biofilm composition and organisation holds the key to CRC. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2019;16(6):329-330. doi: 10.1038/s41575-019-0148-4

 

  1. Yuan K, Xu H, Li S, et al. Intraneoplastic fungal dysbiosis is associated with colorectal cancer progression and host gene mutation. EBioMedicine. 2025;113:105608. doi: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2025.105608

 

  1. Zhang W, Zhang H, Gao Y, Lei J, Suo C. Fungi and cancer: unveiling the complex role of fungal infections in tumor biology and therapeutic resistance. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2025;15:1596688. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2025.1596688

 

  1. Zong Z, Zhou F, Zhang L. The fungal mycobiome: a new hallmark of cancer revealed by pan-cancer analyses. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2023;8(1):50. doi: 10.1038/s41392-023-01334-6

 

  1. Bilal H, Khan MN, Khan S, et al. Fungal Influences on Cancer Initiation, Progression, and Response to Treatment. Cancer Res. 2025;85(3):413-423. doi: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-24-1609

 

  1. Underhill DM, Iliev ID. The mycobiota: interactions between commensal fungi and the host immune system. Nat Rev Immunol. 2014;14(6):405-416. doi: 10.1038/nri3684

 

  1. Wang T, Fan C, Yao A, et al. The Adaptor Protein CARD9 Protects against Colon Cancer by Restricting Mycobiota-Mediated Expansion of Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells. Immunity. 2018;49(3):504-514.e4. doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2018.08.018

 

  1. Bi L, Gojestani S, Wu W, et al. CARD9 mediates dectin-2-induced IkappaBalpha kinase ubiquitination leading to activation of NF-kappaB in response to stimulation by the hyphal form of Candida albicans. J Biol Chem. 2010;285(34):25969-25977. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M110.131300

 

  1. Jia XM, Tang B, Zhu LL, et al. CARD9 mediates Dectin-1- induced ERK activation by linking Ras-GRF1 to H-Ras for antifungal immunity. J Exp Med. 2014;211(11):2307-2321. doi: 10.1084/jem.20132349

 

  1. Veglia F, Sanseviero E, Gabrilovich DI. Myeloid-derived suppressor cells in the era of increasing myeloid cell diversity. Nat Rev Immunol. 2021;21(8):485-498. doi: 10.1038/s41577-020-00490-y

 

  1. Li F, Gao Y, Cheng W, Su X, Yang R. Gut fungal mycobiome: A significant factor of tumor occurrence and development. Cancer Lett. 2023;569:216302. doi: 10.1016/j.canlet.2023.216302

 

  1. Bergmann H, Roth S, Pechloff K, et al. Card9-dependent IL-1β regulates IL-22 production from group 3 innate lymphoid cells and promotes colitis-associated cancer. Eur J Immunol. 2017;47(8):1342-1353. doi: 10.1002/eji.201646765

 

  1. Conche C, Greten FR. Fungi Enter the Stage of Colon Carcinogenesis. Immunity. 2018;49(3):384-386. doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2018.09.002

 

  1. Saijo S, Ikeda S, Yamabe K, et al. Dectin-2 recognition of alpha-mannans and induction of Th17 cell differentiation is essential for host defense against Candida albicans. Immunity. 2010;32(5):681-691. doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2010.05.001

 

  1. Zhu LL, Zhao XQ, Jiang C, et al. C-type lectin receptors Dectin-3 and Dectin-2 form a heterodimeric pattern-recognition receptor for host defense against fungal infection. Immunity. 2013;39(2):324-334. doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2013.05.017

 

  1. Graham LM, Gupta V, Schafer G, et al. The C-type lectin receptor CLECSF8 (CLEC4D) is expressed by myeloid cells and triggers cellular activation through Syk kinase. J Biol Chem. 2012;287(31):25964-25974. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M112.384164

 

  1. Huang HR, Li F, Han H, et al. Dectin-3 Recognizes Glucuronoxylomannan of Cryptococcus neoformans Serotype AD and Cryptococcus gattii Serotype B to Initiate Host Defense Against Cryptococcosis. Front Immunol. 2018;9:1781. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01781

 

  1. Tucey TM, Verma J, Harrison PF, et al. Glucose Homeostasis Is Important for Immune Cell Viability during Candida Challenge and Host Survival of Systemic Fungal Infection. Cell Metab. 2018;27(5):988-1006.e7. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2018.03.019

 

  1. Wang T, Pan D, Zhou Z, et al. Dectin-3 Deficiency Promotes Colitis Development due to Impaired Antifungal Innate Immune Responses in the Gut. PLoS Pathog. 2016;12(6):e1005662. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005662

 

  1. Serafini N, Vosshenrich CA, Di Santo JP. Transcriptional regulation of innate lymphoid cell fate. Nat Rev Immunol. 2015;15(7):415-428. doi: 10.1038/nri3855

 

  1. Mortha A, Chudnovskiy A, Hashimoto D, et al. Microbiota-dependent crosstalk between macrophages and ILC3 promotes intestinal homeostasis. Science. 2014;343(6178):1249288. doi: 10.1126/science.1249288

 

  1. Hepworth MR, Fung TC, Masur SH, et al. Immune tolerance. Group 3 innate lymphoid cells mediate intestinal selection of commensal bacteria-specific CD4⁺ T cells. Science. 2015;348(6238):1031-1035. doi: 10.1126/science.aaa4812

 

  1. Mantovani A, Marchesi F, Malesci A, Laghi L, Allavena P. Tumour-associated macrophages as treatment targets in oncology. Nat Rev Clin Oncol. 2017;14(7):399-416. doi: 10.1038/nrclinonc.2016.217

 

  1. Na YR, Stakenborg M, Seok SH, Matteoli G. Macrophages in intestinal inflammation and resolution: a potential therapeutic target in IBD. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2019;16(9):531-543. doi: 10.1038/s41575-019-0172-4

 

  1. Bowden SD, Rowley G, Hinton JC, Thompson A. Glucose and glycolysis are required for the successful infection of macrophages and mice by Salmonella enterica serovartyphimurium. Infect Immun. 2009;77(7):3117-3126. doi: 10.1128/IAI.00093-09

 

  1. Li C, Wang Y, Li Y, et al. HIF1α-dependent glycolysis promotes macrophage functional activities in protecting against bacterial and fungal infection. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1):3603. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-22039-9

 

  1. Harrison C. Cancer: IL-22: linking inflammation and cancer. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2013;12(7):504. doi: 10.1038/nrd4065

 

  1. Kirchberger S, Royston DJ, Boulard O, et al. Innate lymphoid cells sustain colon cancer through production of interleukin-22 in a mouse model. J Exp Med. 2013;210(5):917-931. doi: 10.1084/jem.20122308

 

  1. Chan IH, Jain R, Tessmer MS, et al. Interleukin-23 is sufficient to induce rapid de novo gut tumorigenesis, independent of carcinogens, through activation of innate lymphoid cells. Mucosal Immunol. 2014;7(4):842-856. doi: 10.1038/mi.2013.101

 

  1. Kryczek I, Lin Y, Nagarsheth N, et al. IL-22⁺CD4⁺ T cells promote colorectal cancer stemness via STAT3 transcription factor activation and induction of the methyltransferase DOT1L. Immunity. 2014;40(5):772-784. doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2014.03.010

 

  1. Dekker E, Tanis PJ, Vleugels JLA, Kasi PM, Wallace MB. Colorectal cancer. Lancet. 2019;394(10207):1467-1480. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32319-0

 

  1. Holash J, Davis S, Papadopoulos N, et al. VEGF-Trap: a VEGF blocker with potent antitumor effects. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2002;99(17):11393-11398. doi: 10.1073/pnas.172398299

 

  1. Cremolini C, Loupakis F, Masi G, et al. FOLFOXIRI or FOLFOXIRI plus bevacizumab as first-line treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer: a propensity score-adjusted analysis from two randomized clinical trials. Ann Oncol. 2016;27(5):843-849. doi: 10.1093/annonc/mdw052

 

  1. Kuboki Y, Nishina T, Shinozaki E, et al. TAS-102 plus bevacizumab for patients with metastatic colorectal cancer refractory to standard therapies (C-TASK FORCE): an investigator-initiated, open-label, single-arm, multicentre, phase 1/2 study. Lancet Oncol. 2017;18(9):1172-1181. doi: 10.1016/S1470-2045(17)30425-4

 

  1. Terme M, Pernot S, Marcheteau E, et al. VEGFA-VEGFR pathway blockade inhibits tumor-induced regulatory T-cell proliferation in colorectal cancer. Cancer Res.2013;73(2):539-549. doi: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-12-2325

 

  1. Allen JE, El-Deiry WS. Oxaliplatin uses JNK to restore TRAIL sensitivity in cancer cells through Bcl-xL inactivation. Gastroenterology. 2011;141(2):430-434. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2011.06.026

 

  1. Allen JE, Krigsfeld G, Mayes PA, et al. Dual inactivation of Akt and ERK by TIC10 signals Foxo3a nuclear translocation, TRAIL gene induction, and potent antitumor effects. Sci Transl Med. 2013;5(171):171ra17. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3004828

 

  1. Wagner J, Kline CL, Zhou L, et al. Dose intensification of TRAIL-inducing ONC201 inhibits metastasis and promotes intratumoral NK cell recruitment. J Clin Invest. 2018;128(6):2325-2338. doi: 10.1172/JCI96711

 

  1. D’Souza N, Georgiou Delisle T, Chen M, Benton S, Abulafi M; NICE FIT Steering Group. Faecal immunochemical test is superior to symptoms in predicting pathology in patients with suspected colorectal cancer symptoms referred on a 2WW pathway: a diagnostic accuracy study. Gut. 2021;70(6):1130-1138. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2020-321956

 

  1. Tsai WS, You JF, Hung HY, et al. Novel Circulating Tumor Cell Assay for Detection of Colorectal Adenomas and Cancer. Clin Transl Gastroenterol. 2019;10(10):e00088. doi: 10.14309/ctg.0000000000000088

 

  1. Dasari A, Morris VK, Allegra CJ, et al. ctDNA applications and integration in colorectal cancer: an NCI Colon and Rectal-Anal Task Forces whitepaper. Nat Rev Clin Oncol. 2020;17(12):757-770. doi: 10.1038/s41571-020-0392-0

 

  1. Bolhaqueiro ACF, Ponsioen B, Bakker B, et al. Ongoing chromosomal instability and karyotype evolution in human colorectal cancer organoids. Nat Genet. 2019;51(5):824-834. doi: 10.1038/s41588-019-0399-6

 

  1. Bruun J, Kryeziu K, Eide PW, et al. Patient-Derived Organoids from Multiple Colorectal Cancer Liver Metastases Reveal Moderate Intra-patient Pharmaco-transcriptomic Heterogeneity. Clin Cancer Res. 2020;26(15):4107-4119. doi: 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-19-3637

 

  1. Roper J, Tammela T, Cetinbas NM, et al. Corrigendum: In vivo genome editing and organoid transplantation models of colorectal cancer and metastasis. Nat Biotechnol. 2017;35(12):1211. doi: 10.1038/nbt1217-1211a

 

  1. Narasimhan V, Wright JA, Churchill M, et al. Medium-throughput Drug Screening of Patient-derived Organoids from Colorectal Peritoneal Metastases to Direct Personalized Therapy. Clin Cancer Res. 2020;26(14):3662-3670. doi: 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-20-0073

 

  1. Cattaneo CM, Dijkstra KK, Fanchi LF, et al. Tumor organoid-T-cell coculture systems. Nat Protoc. 2020;15(1):15-39. doi: 10.1038/s41596-019-0232-9

 

  1. Dijkstra KK, Cattaneo CM, Weeber F, et al. Generation of Tumor-Reactive T Cells by Co-culture of Peripheral Blood Lymphocytes and Tumor Organoids. Cell. 2018;174(6):1586-1598.e12. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2018.07.009

 

  1. Li J, Ma X, Chakravarti D, Shalapour S, DePinho RA. Genetic and biological hallmarks of colorectal cancer. Genes Dev. 2021;35(11-12):787-820. doi: 10.1101/gad.348226.120

 

  1. Kaźmierczak-Siedlecka K, Daca A, Fic M, van de Wetering T, Folwarski M, Makarewicz W. Therapeutic methods of gut microbiota modification in colorectal cancer management-fecal microbiota transplantation, prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics. Gut Microbes. 2020;11(6):1518-1530. doi: 10.1080/19490976.2020.1764309

 

  1. Shamekhi S, Lotfi H, Abdolalizadeh J, Bonabi E, Zarghami N. An overview of yeast probiotics as cancer biotherapeutics: possible clinical application in colorectal cancer. Clin Transl Oncol. 2020;22(8):1227-1239. doi: 10.1007/s12094-019-02270-0

 

  1. Wu X, Xia Y, He F, Zhu C, Ren W. Intestinal mycobiota in health and diseases: from a disrupted equilibrium to clinical opportunities. Microbiome. 2021;9(1):60. doi: 10.1186/s40168-021-01024-x

 

  1. Greathouse KL, Wyatt M, Johnson AJ, et al. Diet-microbiome interactions in cancer treatment: Opportunities and challenges for precision nutrition in cancer. Neoplasia. 2022;29:100800. doi: 10.1016/j.neo.2022.100800

 

  1. Makhloufi H, Pinon A, Champavier Y, et al. In Vitro Antiproliferative Activity of Echinulin Derivatives from Endolichenic Fungus Aspergillus sp. against Colorectal Cancer. Molecules. 2024;29(17):4117. doi: 10.3390/molecules29174117

 

  1. Varlı M, Lee EY, Park SY, et al. An Endolichenic Fungi- Derived Fatty Acid, cis-10-Nonadecenoic acid, Suppresses Colorectal Cancer Stemness. Biomol Ther. 2025;33(5):842-851. doi: 10.4062/biomolther.2025.062

 

  1. Yang X, Bao Q, Xiao S, et al. Anti-colorectal cancer bioactive metabolites from endophytic fungi of Pyrola spp. Targeting p-ATM/P53 pathway driven by in vitro experiments and network pharmacology. Fitoterapia. 2025;187:106906. doi: 10.1016/j.fitote.2025.106906

 

  1. Lai CT, Hsieh YH, Wang YH, et al. Trichodermin, an endophytic fungal sesquiterpene, suppresses colorectal cancer cell migration and invasion by targeting the PKCERK-Sp1-CTSV axis. Phytomedicine. 2025;145:157063. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2025.157063

 

  1. de Graaff P, Berrevoets C, Rӧsch C, et al. Curdlan, zymosan and a yeast-derived β-glucan reshape tumor-associated macrophages into producers of inflammatory chemo-attractants. Cancer Immunol Immunother. 2021;70(2):547-561. doi: 10.1007/s00262-020-02707-4

 

  1. Lee WS, Chen RJ, Wang YJ, et al. In vitro and in vivo studies of the anticancer action of terbinafine in human cancer cell lines: G0/G1 p53-associated cell cycle arrest. Int J Cancer. 2003;106(1):125-137. doi: 10.1002/ijc.11194

 

  1. Wu CH, Jeng JH, Wang YJ, et al. Antitumor effects of miconazole on human colon carcinoma xenografts in nude mice through induction of apoptosis and G0/G1 cell cycle arrest. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2002;180(1):22-35. doi: 10.1006/taap.2002.9352

 

  1. Deng H, Huang L, Liao Z, Liu M, Li Q, Xu R. Itraconazole inhibits the Hedgehog signaling pathway thereby inducing autophagy-mediated apoptosis of colon cancer cells. Cell Death Dis. 2020;11(7):539. doi: 10.1038/s41419-020-02742-0

 

  1. Forgue-Lafitte ME, Coudray AM, Fagot D, Mester J. Effects of ketoconazole on the proliferation and cell cycle of human cancer cell lines. Cancer Res. 1992;52(24):6827-6831.

 

  1. Chen RJ, Lee WS, Liang YC, et al. Ketoconazole induces G0/G1 arrest in human colorectal and hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2000;169(2):132-141. doi: 10.1006/taap.2000.9062

 

  1. Ho YS, Duh JS, Jeng JH, et al. Griseofulvin potentiates antitumorigenesis effects of nocodazole through induction of apoptosis and G2/M cell cycle arrest in human colorectal cancer cells. Int J Cancer. 2001;91(3):393-401. doi: 10.1002/1097-0215(200002)9999:9999%3C::AID-IJC1070%3E3.0.CO;2-%23

 

  1. Liu X, Sun K, Feng L, et al. Review of the Bioactivities and Mechanisms of Fungus Extracts and Compounds in Colon Cancer. Crit Rev Eukaryot Gene Expr. 2025;35(1):37-48. doi: 10.1615/CritRevEukaryotGeneExpr.2024054308
Next article in this issue
Share
Back to top
Microbes & Immunity, Electronic ISSN: 3029-2883 Print ISSN: 3041-0886, Published by AccScience Publishing
We use cookies on our website to ensure you get the best experience.
Read more about our cookies here
Accept