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REVIEW ARTICLE

3D-printed mechanical metamaterials for bone repair: Advanced manufacturing, mechanical design, and biological functionalisation

Xingzhen Li1† ,  Jinbo Zhang1† ,  Hao Chen1 ,  Aobo Zhang1 ,  Yang Liu1 ,  Xue Zhao2* ,  Qing Han1*
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1 Department of Orthopedics, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin , China
2 Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin , China
†These authors contributed equally to this work.
IJB, 026360389 https://doi.org/10.36922/IJB026360389
Received: 1 September 2026 | Revised: 29 September 2026 | Accepted: 29 September 2026 | Published online: 29 September 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
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Abstract

Repair of large segmental bone defects requires implanted scaffolds not only to provide sufficient structural stability but also to accommodate the pronounced spatial heterogeneity, anisotropy, and load-dependent nonlinear behaviour of native bone while establishing a local mechanical microenvironment conducive to tissue regeneration. Mechanical metamaterials offer a distinct design paradigm for precise mechanical regulation by tailoring microstructural topology and deformation mechanisms, including rotation, buckling, and configurational transitions, thereby enabling spatially differentiated responses, auxetic behaviour, nonlinear stiffness, multistability, and reconfigurability. This review first examines the mechanical adaptation requirements of metamaterial scaffolds for bone repair in the context of the heterogeneous, anisotropic, and nonlinear mechanical characteristics of native bone, and systematically summarises the capabilities and key constraints of advanced three-dimensional printing technologies, including powder bed fusion, vat photopolymerisation, and material extrusion, for fabricating complex metamaterial architectures. Building on this foundation, we critically review the structural mechanisms and bone-regenerative effects of spatially heterogeneous and anisotropic, auxetic, nonlinear, multistable, and reconfigurable metamaterials, and further discuss strategies for integrating functional ions, growth factors, and therapeutic agents with metamaterial architectures. We also examine the time-dependent mechanical evolution of degradable metamaterials, highlighting the coupling among material degradation, architectural evolution, and progressive bone regeneration after implantation. By elucidating the intrinsic relationships among structural design, mechanical response, and biological function, this review aims to provide a conceptual framework for the development of next-generation bone repair implants that combine precise mechanical adaptation with regenerative regulation.

Keywords
3D printing
Mechanical metamaterials
Bone tissue engineering
Mechanical microenvironment
Bone regeneration
Funding
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant numbers 82272504), the Department of Science and Technology of Jilin Province (grant numbers YDZJ202501ZYTS041), Key training plan for outstanding youth of Jilin University (grant numbers 419070623036), Jilin University Lixin Excellent Young Teacher Training Program (grant numbers 4190805LX119).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare they have no competing interests.
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International Journal of Bioprinting, Electronic ISSN: 2424-8002 Print ISSN: 2424-7723, Published by AccScience Publishing
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