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REVIEW ARTICLE

Clinical maturity of 3D printing and bioprinting technologies: A systematic analysis of clinical trials across medical applications

Carmen Alvarez-Lorenzo1* ,  Rubén Pérez-Mañanes2,3,4 ,  María Vallet-Regí5*
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1 Department of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, I+D Farma Group (GI-1645), Faculty of Pharmacy, Institute of Materials (iMATUS), and Health Research Institute of Santiago de Compostela (IDIS), University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
2 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Traumatology (Musculoskeletal Tumour Unit, CSUR Sarcomas) and Advanced Planning and 3D Manufacturing Unit, Gregorio Marañón General University Hospital, Madrid, Spain
3 Gregorio Marañón Health Research Institute, Madrid, Spain
4 Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
5 Department of Chemistry in Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Institute for Health Research Hospital 12 de Octubre (i+12), Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
IJB, 026190175 https://doi.org/10.36922/IJB026190175
Received: 6 May 2026 | Revised: 10 June 2026 | Accepted: 10 June 2026 | Published online: 11 June 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
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Abstract

Three-dimensional (3D) printing and bioprinting technologies are increasingly being integrated into clinical research and healthcare, enabling the development of patient-specific medical devices, anatomical models, and bioengineered constructs. This study analyzed registered clinical trials in ClinicalTrials.gov to characterize the current clinical landscape and relative degree of clinical maturity of medical 3D printing and bioprinting technologies across different application domains. Search terms included 3D printing, bioprinting, additive manufacturing, patient-specific devices, surgical guides, scaffolds, and biofabrication. Eligible studies involved human subjects and clinical applications related to diagnosis, treatment, surgical planning, or rehabilitation. The identified trials (ca. 700) were categorized into four main domains: patient-specific anatomical models, disease models, orthoses and assistive devices, and implantable prostheses and regenerative scaffolds. Anatomical models represent the most extensively translated application, with widespread use in surgical planning, procedural simulation, and patient communication across multiple specialties. Orthoses and assistive devices also account for a substantial proportion of studies, reflecting the growing adoption of digital workflows for personalized rehabilitation solutions. Implantable prostheses and scaffolds constitute a rapidly expanding area, particularly in orthopedics and maxillofacial surgery, where customization improves anatomical fit and functional outcomes. In contrast, bioprinting-based disease models and regenerative constructs remain limited to early-stage clinical investigations. Overall, the distribution and design of clinical trials reveal a gradient of translational development, with mechanically driven applications showing broader clinical adoption than biologically complex systems. Continued advances in materials, manufacturing processes, and regulatory frameworks will be critical to support large-scale clinical validation and broader implementation of these technologies in personalized and regenerative medicine.

Graphical abstract
Keywords
Additive manufacturing
Clinical trial
Personalized medicine
Implantable prostheses
Orthoses
Surgical planning
Regenerative medicine
Bioprinted disease models
Funding
The work was supported by the Spain Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades MICIU/AEI/ 10.13039/501100011033 [grant PID2023-150422OB-I00 to CAL], ERDF A way of making Europe, cofunded by the European Union, Xunta de Galicia [ED431C 2024/09], Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII) through the Biomodels and Biobanks Platform and co-funded by the European Union [grant PT23/00116 to RPM].
Conflict of interest
The authors declare they have no competing interests to disclose.
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International Journal of Bioprinting, Electronic ISSN: 2424-8002 Print ISSN: 2424-7723, Published by AccScience Publishing
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