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REVIEW ARTICLE

Marine-derived bioactives as immunomodulators: Potential applications in food and health

Gulsun Akdemir Evrendilek1*
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1 University of Maine Cooperative Extension, Orono, Maine, United States of America
MI, 025430116 https://doi.org/10.36922/MI025430116
Received: 21 October 2025 | Revised: 22 November 2025 | Accepted: 26 November 2025 | Published online: 19 December 2025
© 2025 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
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Abstract

Marine ecosystems are prolific sources of structurally diverse bioactives—including polysaccharides (e.g., alginate, fucoidan, laminarin, and carrageenan), peptides/proteins, ω-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, carotenoids (e.g., astaxanthin and fucoxanthin), steroids, macrolides, and alkaloids—that modulate innate and adaptive immunity through convergent pathways. Evidence across algae, fish, shellfish, microbes, and sponges shows these molecules regulate toll-like receptor signaling, nuclear factor κB/mitogen-activated protein kinase axes, cyclooxygenase/lipoxygenase-derived eicosanoids, complement activation, and redox tone; rebalance cytokine profiles (↓ tumor necrosis factor-α/interleukin (IL)-1β/IL-6; ↑ IL-10); and influence effector functions of macrophages, natural killer and T cells. Marine peptides and protein hydrolysates, often generated through enzymatic hydrolysis or fermentation and purified by membrane fractionation and chromatography, display antioxidant, antimicrobial, antihypertensive, antihyperlipidemic, anti-inflammatory, immunostimulatory, and anticancer activities in vitro and in vivo. Polysaccharide structure (e.g., molecular weight, linkage, and sulfation) and peptide sequence/composition drive bioactivity, whereas ω-3–derived specialized pro-resolving mediators contribute to inflammation resolution. Beyond direct immune effects, several marine bioactives exert prebiotic-like actions that reshape gut microbiota and mucosal defenses. Advances in extraction, stabilization, and delivery are accelerating incorporation into functional foods, nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, and medical nutrition. Key translation barriers remain—heterogeneity of sources, batch-to-batch variability, processing stability, bioavailability and pharmacokinetics, allergenicity, and limited standardized immune endpoints and human trials. This review synthesizes mechanistic and application-oriented evidence for marine-derived immunomodulators, outlines safety and regulatory considerations, and prioritizes research needed to enable evidence-based deployment in food and health.

Graphical abstract
Keywords
Marine bioactives
Immunomodulation
Polysaccharides
Peptides
ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids
Carotenoids
Functional foods
Nutraceuticals
Funding
None.
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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