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REVIEW ARTICLE

Smart hydrogel bioinks integrated with two-dimensional nanomaterials for cardiovascular bioprinting and atherosclerosis modeling

Jiangzhou Chu1 ,  Zhi Liu2 ,  Zhongshan He3,4 ,  Shengbin Liu2*
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1 School of Medicine and Health, College of Medicine and Health, Urban Vocational College of Sichuan, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
2 Department of Critical Care Medicine, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-related Molecular Network, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
3 Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, The Robert M. Berne Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
4 Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Robert M. Berne Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
IJB, 026230240 https://doi.org/10.36922/IJB026230240
Received: 6 June 2026 | Revised: 4 July 2026 | Accepted: 14 July 2026 | Published online: 15 July 2026
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Bioprinting for Engineered Tissues and Organs)
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
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Abstract

Cardiovascular diseases remain the leading cause of mortality worldwide, and atherosclerosis underlies most ischemic cardiovascular events. However, conventional in vitro and in vivo models fail to fully reproduce the complex cellular interactions, extracellular matrix remodeling, oxidative stress, and hemodynamic microenvironment of human vascular lesions. This review summarizes recent advances in stimuli-responsive hydrogel bioinks for three-dimensional bioprinting of atherosclerosis models. We discuss how disease-responsive biomaterials can dynamically regulate the cellular microenvironment and improve the physiological relevance of engineered vascular tissues. Particular emphasis is placed on the integration of two-dimensional nanomaterials. Graphene-based materials provide electrical conductivity, mechanical reinforcement, and sensing capabilities; black phosphorus offers biodegradability, photothermal responsiveness, and reactive oxygen species-sensitive behavior; and emerging Xene materials such as germanene present additional opportunities for multifunctional bioink design. We compare their respective advantages and limitations for cardiovascular bioprinting. Finally, we discuss key translational challenges, including material standardization, long-term biosafety, biological validation, manufacturing scalability, and regulatory approval. We propose that multifunctional, disease-responsive bioinks combined with advanced biofabrication technologies will accelerate the development of physiologically relevant cardiovascular disease models and precision medicine platforms.

Graphical abstract
Keywords
Cardiovascular bioprinting
Atherosclerosis modeling
Stimuli-responsive hydrogel bioinks
2D nanomaterials
Organ-on-a-chip
Funding
This study was supported by a key research project grant from the Chengdu Technology Bureau (2026-YF05-00796-SN) and the Sichuan Province Science and Technology Major Special Project (2025ZDZX0039).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare they have no competing interests.
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International Journal of Bioprinting, Electronic ISSN: 2424-8002 Print ISSN: 2424-7723, Published by AccScience Publishing
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