AccScience Publishing / IJB / Online First / DOI: 10.36922/IJB026190177
Submit to IJB
Cite this article
10
Download
460
Views
Related Info Links
Google Scholar
More by Authors Links
Junlei Li
Dewei Zhao
Journal Browser
Volume | Year
Issue
Search
Forthcoming Issue
Current Issue
View All
News and Announcements
View All
RESEARCH ARTICLE

Selective laser melting-fabricated porous tantalum scaffold integrated with nano-MgO/alginate hydrogel for enhanced osteogenesis and immunomodulation in critical-size bone defect repair

Haolin Jiao1† ,  Qinwen Xie1† ,  Fang Cao1 ,  Lin Xiao2 ,  Bing Ge1 ,  Pinqiao Yi1 ,  Liqun Song1 ,  Haiyao Wang1 ,  Lingpeng Liu1 ,  Junlei Li1* ,  Dewei Zhao1*
Show Less
1 Department of Orthopedics, Affiliated Zhongshan Hospital of Dalian University, Dalian, Liaoning, China
2 Institute of Orthopedics, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, China
†These authors contributed equally to this work.
IJB, 026190177 https://doi.org/10.36922/IJB026190177
Received: 7 May 2026 | Revised: 15 June 2026 | Accepted: 22 June 2026 | Published online: 22 June 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
Download PDF
XML
Cite
Abstract

The effective repair of critical-sized bone defects remains a major challenge in bone tissue engineering. While porous tantalum (pTa) scaffolds fabricated by selective laser melting offer excellent mechanical compatibility and structural stability, their inherent biological inertness limits their osteogenic potential. This study aims to develop a functionally enhanced composite scaffold by filling three-dimensional–printed pTa with an alginate hydrogel incorporated with nano-magnesium oxide particles (pTa@SA-MgO). The hydrogel acted as a carrier for controlled Mg2+ ion release. Comprehensive in vitro and in vivo evaluations revealed that this composite scaffold significantly promoted osteogenic activities, including MC3T3-E1 cell proliferation, migration, adhesion, and differentiation (as evidenced by increased alkaline phosphatase activity, mineralized nodule formation, and upregulation of Runx2, Ocn, Opn, and Col1a1 gene expression). Moreover, it modulated the immune microenvironment by enhancing M2 macrophage polarization and suppressing M1 macrophage polarization. In a rabbit femoral defect model, the pTa@SA-MgO scaffold demonstrated superior bone regeneration compared to controls, with greater bone volume and enhanced new bone formation. This research successfully integrates a sustained ion release strategy with a high-performance metallic scaffold, providing new insights into the design of bone repair materials with synergistic mechanical support and bioactive functionality.

Graphical abstract
Keywords
Three-dimensional–printed porous tantalum
Nano-magnesium oxide
Sodium alginate hydrogel
Bone defect
Funding
This study was funded by the LiaoNing Revitalization Talents Program (project No. XLYC2203102) and the Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars of Dalian (project No. 2024RJ007).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare they have no competing interests.
References
  1. Xu W, Gao W, Zhang Y, et al. Injectable HAMA-CPC hydrogels loaded with high-yield 3D bioprinted adipose-derived stem cell small extracellular vesicles for increased bone repair. J Nanobiotechnology. 2025;23(1). doi: 10.1186/s12951-025-03596-4
  2. Gao C, Qiu ZY, Hou JW, et al. Clinical observation of mineralized collagen bone grafting after curettage of benign bone tumors. Regen Biomater. 2020;7(6):567-575. doi: 10.1093/rb/rbaa031
  3. Zhu W, Li C, Yao M, et al. Advances in osseointegration of biomimetic mineralized collagen and inorganic metal elements of natural bone for bone repair. Regen Biomater. 2023;10. doi: 10.1093/rb/rbad030
  4. Song Y, Wang N, Shi H, et al. Biomaterials combined with ADSCs for bone tissue engineering: current advances and applications. Regen Biomater. 2023;10. doi: 10.1093/rb/rbad083
  5. Su X, Wei L, Xu Z, et al. Evaluation and Application of Silk Fibroin Based Biomaterials to Promote Cartilage Regeneration in Osteoarthritis Therapy. Biomedicines. 2023;11(8):2244. doi: 10.3390/biomedicines11082244
  6. Goncharov EN, Koval OA, Nikolaevich Bezuglov E, et al. Conservative Treatment in Avascular Necrosis of the Femoral Head: A Systematic Review. Med Sci. 2024;12(3):32. doi: 10.3390/medsci12030032
  7. Wei Y, Lyu P, Bi R, et al. Neural Regeneration in Regenerative Endodontic Treatment: An Overview and Current Trends. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(24):15492. doi: 10.3390/ijms232415492
  8. Lu Y, Deshmukh S, Jones I, et al. Biodegradable magnesium alloys for orthopaedic applications. Biomater Transl. 2021;2(3):214. doi: 10.12336/biomatertransl.2021.03.005
  9. Yu L, Sun F, Wang Y, et al. Effects of MgO nanoparticle addition on the mechanical properties, degradation properties, antibacterial properties and in vitro and in vivo biological properties of 3D-printed Zn scaffolds. Bioact Mater. 2024;37:72-85. doi: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2024.03.016
  10. Cao B, Xie L, Xu Y, et al. Dual-core-component multiphasic bioceramic granules with selective-area porous structures facilitating bone tissue regeneration and repair. RSC Adv. 2024;14(15):10526-10537. doi: 10.1039/d4ra00911h
  11. Jaeyoung R, Kang HS, Kang BH, et al. Effect of rhBMP-2 applied with a 3D-printed titanium implant on new bone formation in rabbit calvarium. J Appl Oral Sci. 2021;29. doi: 10.1590/1678-7757-2020-1092
  12. Gao H, Yang J, Jin X, et al. Static Compressive Behavior and Failure Mechanism of Tantalum Scaffolds with Optimized Periodic Lattice Fabricated by Laser-Based Additive Manufacturing. 3D Print Addit Manuf. 2023;10(5):887-904. doi: 10.1089/3dp.2021.0253
  13. Mao S, Liu Y, Wang F, et al. Design and biomechanical analysis of patient-specific porous tantalum prostheses for knee joint revision surgery. Int J Bioprint. 2024;9(4):735. doi: 10.18063/ijb.735
  14. Fu M, Li J, Liu M, et al. Sericin/Nano-Hydroxyapatite Hydrogels Based on Graphene Oxide for Effective Bone Regeneration via Immunomodulation and Osteoinduction. Int J Nanomedicine. 2023;18:1875-1895. doi: 10.2147/ijn.S399487
  15. Li L, Pan C, Zhang X, et al. Efficacy of cementless porous tantalum tibial components versus cemented tibial components in primary total knee arthroplasty: A meta-analysis. Medicine. 2024;103(14):e37697. doi: 10.1097/md.0000000000037697
  16. Ji Y, Hou M, Zhang J, et al. Preparation and Properties of Partial-Degradable ZrO(2)-Chitosan Particles-GelMA Composite Scaffolds. Polymers. 2022;14(19):4233. doi: 10.3390/polym14194233
  17. Zheng C, Attarilar S, Li K, et al. 3D-printed HA15-loaded β-Tricalcium Phosphate/Poly (Lactic-co-glycolic acid) Bone Tissue Scaffold Promotes Bone Regeneration in Rabbit Radial Defects. Int J Bioprint. 2021;7(1):317. doi: 10.18063/ijb.v7i1.317
  18. Pouroutzidou GK, Papadopoulou L, Lazaridou M, et al. Composite PLGA-Nanobioceramic Coating on Moxifloxacin-Loaded Akermanite 3D Porous Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Regeneration. Pharmaceutics. 2023;15(3):819. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15030819
  19. Tang Z, Li X, Tan Y, et al. The material and biological characteristics of osteoinductive calcium phosphate ceramics. Regen Biomater. 2017;5(1):43-59. doi: 10.1093/rb/rbx024
  20. Ma C, de Barros NR, Zheng T, et al. 3D Printing and Surface Engineering of Ti6Al4V Scaffolds for Enhanced Osseointegration in an In Vitro Study. Biomimetics. 2024;9(7):423. doi: 10.3390/biomimetics9070423
  21. Luo L, Wen Z, Hong G, et al. Reliable lateral Zn deposition along (002) plane by oxidized PAN separator for zinc-ion batteries. RSC Adv. 2023;13(50):34947-34957. doi: 10.1039/d3ra05177c
  22. Li M, Zhao Z, Yi J. Biomaterials Designed to Modulate Reactive Oxygen Species for Enhanced Bone Regeneration in Diabetic Conditions. J Funct Biomater. 2024;15(8):220. doi: 10.3390/jfb15080220
  23. Dutta SD, Ganguly K, Patil TV, et al. Unraveling the potential of 3D bioprinted immunomodulatory materials for regulating macrophage polarization: State-of-the-art in bone and associated tissue regeneration. Bioact Mater. 2023;28:284-310. doi: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2023.05.014
  24. Novella I, Rupaedah B, Eddy DR, et al. The Influence of Polyvinyl Alcohol Porogen Addition on the Nanostructural Characteristics of Hydroxyapatite. Materials. 2023;16(18):6313. doi: 10.3390/ma16186313
  25. Rasmussen AN, Thomsen BL, Christensen JB, et al. Quartz-Enhanced Photoacoustic Spectroscopy Assisted by Partial Least-Squares Regression for Multi-Gas Measurements. Sensors. 2023;23(18):7984. doi: 10.3390/s23187984
  26. Han L, Peng K, Qiu LY, et al. Hitchhiking on Controlled-Release Drug Delivery Systems: Opportunities and Challenges for Cancer Vaccines. Front Pharmacol. 2021;12. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2021.679602
  27. Frent OD, Vicas LG, Duteanu N, et al. Sodium Alginate-Natural Microencapsulation Material of Polymeric Microparticles. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(20):12108. doi: 10.3390/ijms232012108
  28. Zhang B, Bai M, Yang M, et al. Injectable nanocomposite hydrogel for localized precision delivery of dexamethasone after traumatic brain injury: dual modulation of neuroinflammation and blood-brain barrier restoration. J Transl Med. 2025;23(1). doi: 10.1186/s12967-025-06528-w
  29. Luo Z, Ma J, Wang Y, et al. Application of Mg-MOF-loaded gelatin microspheres with osteogenic, angiogenic, and ROS scavenging capabilities in bone defect repair. Int J Biol Macromol. 2024;280:135721. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.135721
  30. Zhang X, Chen Q, Mao X. Magnesium Enhances Osteogenesis of BMSCs by Tuning Osteoimmunomodulation. Biomed Res Int. 2019;2019:1-13. doi: 10.1155/2019/7908205
  31. Zhou Y, Yang Y, Liu R, et al. Research Progress of Polydopamine Hydrogel in the Prevention and Treatment of Oral Diseases. Int J Nanomedicine. 2023;18:2623-2645. doi: 10.2147/ijn.S407044
  32. Hao J, Du L, He Y, et al. Bioceramic Surface Topography Regulating Immune Osteogenesis. BME Front. 2025;6. doi: 10.34133/bmef.0089
  33. Hou Z, Liu X, Zhang X, et al. Construction of Silver-Calcium Micro-Galvanic Cell on Titanium for Immunoregulation Osteogenesis. BME Front. 2025;6. doi: 10.34133/bmef.0173
  34. Zeng M, Huang Z, Cen X, et al. Biomimetic Gradient Hydrogels with High Toughness and Antibacterial Properties. Gels. 2023;10(1):6. doi: 10.3390/gels10010006
  35. Mulvee M, Vasiljevic N, Mann S, Patil AJ. StimuliResponsive Nucleotide-Amino Acid Hybrid Supramolecular Hydrogels. Gels. 2021;7(3):146. doi: 10.3390/gels7030146
  36. Wang X, Liu W, Yu X, et al. Advances in surface modification of tantalum and porous tantalum for rapid osseointegration: A thematic review. Front Bioeng Biotechnol. 2022;10. doi: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.983695
  37. Xiao L, Li Y, Geng R, et al. Polymer composite microspheres loading (177)Lu radionuclide for interventional radioembolization therapy and real-time SPECT imaging of hepatic cancer. Biomater Res. 2023;27(1). doi: 10.1186/s40824-023-00455-x
  38. Danchuk O, Levchenko A, da Silva Mesquita R, et al. Meeting Contemporary Challenges: Development of Nanomaterials for Veterinary Medicine. Pharmaceutics. 2023;15(9):2326. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15092326
  39. Zhao D, Cheng L, Lu F, et al. Design, fabrication and clinical characterization of additively manufactured tantalum hip joint prosthesis. Regen Biomater. 2024;11. doi: 10.1093/rb/rbae057
  40. Li J, Cheng L, Yang J, et al. Study on the performance of selected laser melting porous Ta scaffolds with different porosities used as orthopedics implant biomaterial. J Mater Res Technol. 2025;36:9320-9332. doi: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2025.05.195
  41. Gao H, Yang J, Jin X, et al. Porous tantalum scaffolds: Fabrication, structure, properties, and orthopedic applications. Mater Des. 2021;210:110095. doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2021.110095
  42. Yang J, Gao H, Zhang D, et al. Static Compressive Behavior and Material Failure Mechanism of Trabecular Tantalum Scaffolds Fabricated by Laser Powder Bed Fusion-based Additive Manufacturing. Int J Bioprint. 2021;8(1):438. doi: 10.18063/ijb.v8i1.438
  43. Lin Z, Wu J, Qiao W, et al. Precisely controlled delivery of magnesium ions thru sponge-like monodisperse PLGA/nano-MgO-alginate core-shell microsphere device to enable in-situ bone regeneration. Biomaterials. 2018;174:1-16. doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2018.05.011
  44. Ma L, Cheng S, Ji X, et al. Immobilizing magnesium ions on 3D printed porous tantalum scaffolds with polydopamine for improved vascularization and osteogenesis. Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl. 2020;117:111303. doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2020.111303
  45. Xu J, Wu D, Ge B, et al. Selective Laser Melting of the Porous Ta Scaffold with Mg-Doped Calcium Phosphate Coating for Orthopedic Applications. ACS Biomater Sci Eng. 2024;10(3):1435-1447. doi: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.3c01503
  46. Liu W, Wang T, Yang C, et al. Alkaline biodegradable implants for osteoporotic bone defects--importance of microenvironment pH. Osteoporos Int. 2016;27(1):93-104. doi: 10.1007/s00198-015-3217-8
  47. Siffert RS. The role of alkaline phosphatase in osteogenesis. J Exp Med. 1951;93(5):415-426. doi: 10.1084/jem.93.5.415
  48. Gu L, Huang R, Ni N, et al. Mg-Cross-Linked Alginate Hydrogel Induces BMSC/Macrophage Crosstalk to Enhance Bone Tissue Regeneration via Dual Promotion of the Ligand-Receptor Pairing of the OSM/miR-370-3p-gp130 Signaling Pathway. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2024;16(24):30685-30702. doi: 10.1021/acsami.4c02795
  49. Zhao Z, Li G, Ruan H, et al. Capturing Magnesium Ions via Microfluidic Hydrogel Microspheres for Promoting Cancellous Bone Regeneration. ACS Nano. 2021;15(8):13041-13054. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.1c02147
  50. Wang M, Chen F, Wang J, et al. Calcium phosphate altered the cytokine secretion of macrophages and influenced the homing of mesenchymal stem cells. J Mater Chem B. 2018;6(29):4765-4774. doi: 10.1039/c8tb01201f
  51. Gu P, Zhu Z, Xiao X, et al. Actively Infiltrative Micro/Nanochannels Propel Cell Migration-to-Mechanoactivation Transition for Centralized Osteogenesis. ACS Nano. 2025;19(34):31092-31106. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.5c09462
  52. Chen KH, Chen CY, Wang WR, et al. Development and evaluation of an injectable ChitHCl-MgSO(4)-DDA hydrogel for bone regeneration: In vitro and in vivo studies on cell migration and osteogenesis enhancement. Biomater Adv. 2024;163:213963. doi: 10.1016/j.bioadv.2024.213963
  53. Zhao D, Witte F, Lu F, et al. Current status on clinical applications of magnesium-based orthopaedic implants: A review from clinical translational perspective. Biomaterials. 2017;112:287-302. doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.10.017
  54. Cheng P, Han P, Zhao C, et al. High-purity magnesium interference screws promote fibrocartilaginous entheses regeneration in the anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction rabbit model via accumulation of BMP-2 and VEGF. Biomaterials. 2016;81:14-26. doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2015.12.005
  55. Zhao N, Zhu D. Collagen self-assembly on orthopedic magnesium biomaterials surface and subsequent bone cell attachment. PLoS ONE. 2014;9(10):e110420. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0110420
  56. Zhang X, Zu H, Zhao D, et al. Ion channel functional protein kinase TRPM7 regulates Mg ions to promote the osteoinduction of human osteoblast via PI3K pathway: In vitro simulation of the bone-repairing effect of Mg-based alloy implant. Acta Biomater. 2017;63:369-382. doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2017.08.051
  57. Chen S, Liu F, Xin H, et al. Boosting MRSA Infectious Osteoporosis Treatment: Mg-Doped Nanofilm on Vacancy-Enriched TiO2 Coating for Providing In Situ Sonodynamic Bacteria-Killing and Osteogenic Alkaline Microenvironment. Adv Funct Mater. 2024;34(11). doi: 10.1002/adfm.202311965
  58. Avery D, Morandini L, Celt N, et al. Immune cell response to orthopedic and craniofacial biomaterials depends on biomaterial composition. Acta Biomater. 2023;161:285-297. doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2023.03.007
  59. Liu A, Liao H, Zhang X, et al. A novel tantalum scaffold promoting osteoporotic osseointegration by controlled immune regulation. Int J Bioprint. 2025;11(2):474-493. doi: 10.36922/ijb.8595
  60. Sun Q, Zhou Y, Zhang A, et al. The immunomodulatory effects and mechanisms of magnesium-containing implants in bone regeneration: A review. J Magnes Alloy. 2024;12(7):2695-2710. doi: 10.1016/j.jma.2024.05.011
  61. Bessa-Gonçalves M, Ribeiro-Machado C, Costa M, et al. Magnesium incorporation in fibrinogen scaffolds promotes macrophage polarization towards M2 phenotype. Acta Biomater. 2023;155:667-683. doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2022.10.046
Share
Back to top
International Journal of Bioprinting, Electronic ISSN: 2424-8002 Print ISSN: 2424-7723, Published by AccScience Publishing
We use cookies on our website to ensure you get the best experience.
Read more about our cookies here
Accept