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REVIEW ARTICLE

Extrusion-based three-dimensional bioprinting of osteochondral scaffolds: Strategies using hydrogel/thermoplastic combinations

Mingzu Du1* ,  Giuseppe Tronci1,2 ,  Xuebin B. Yang1 ,  David J. Wood1,3*
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1 Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering Research Group, School of Dentistry, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
2 Clothworkers’ Centre for Textile Materials Innovation for Healthcare, School of Design, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
3 Bragg Centre for Materials Research, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
IJB, 026140122 https://doi.org/10.36922/IJB026140122
Received: 30 March 2026 | Revised: 1 May 2026 | Accepted: 7 May 2026 | Published online: 11 May 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
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Abstract

Osteochondral defects remain a major clinical challenge due to the complex hierarchical structure, marked mechanical gradients, and distinct biological requirements of cartilage, calcified cartilage, and subchondral bone. Extrusion-based three-dimensional bioprinting has emerged as a promising strategy for osteochondral repair, enabling the spatially controlled deposition of cells, biomaterials, and bioactive factors to fabricate constructs with region-specific compositions and architectures. Among the available material systems, combinations of hydrogels and thermoplastics have attracted increasing attention, as they integrate the favourable biological microenvironment of hydrogels with the mechanical strength, structural stability, and printability of thermoplastics. This synergy makes them particularly suitable for the fabrication of biomimetic osteochondral scaffolds with multiphasic and gradient features. This review systematically summarises the application of hydrogel/thermoplastic combinations in extrusion-based bioprinting for osteochondral repair, with particular emphasis on their role in addressing the structural, mechanical, and biological requirements of osteochondral regeneration. It discusses the design requirements for osteochondral scaffolds, the properties and crosslinking strategies of hydrogel bioinks, the function of thermoplastic frameworks in mechanical reinforcement, and current approaches for constructing multilayered and gradient scaffolds. The review also analyses current limitations, including challenges related to printability, material compatibility, interlayer bonding, degradation mismatch, and long-term functional performance. Overall, this work provides a comprehensive overview of hydrogel/thermoplastic composite systems and highlights their potential to advance the development of clinically relevant bioprinted scaffolds for osteochondral repair.

Graphical abstract
Keywords
Extrusion bioprinting
Parameter optimisation
Hydrogel bioinks
Thermoplastic printing
Osteochondral repair
Funding
This work was funded by the University of Leeds-China Scholarship Council (CSC) Joint Scholarship (No. 202206220017).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare they have no competing interests.
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International Journal of Bioprinting, Electronic ISSN: 2424-8002 Print ISSN: 2424-7723, Published by AccScience Publishing
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