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REVIEW ARTICLE

A rational framework for 3D bioprinting of organoids: From assembly mechanisms and material properties to functional outcomes

Yuting Wang1† ,  Aizhu Liu1† ,  Yihan Lin1 ,  Yun-Long Wu1* ,  Chiyu Jia2* ,  Zheng Luo1,2*
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1 Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Target Research and State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
2 Center of Burn & Plastic and Wound Healing Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of University of South China, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
†These authors contributed equally to this work.
IJB, 025010539 https://doi.org/10.36922/IJB025010539
Received: 29 December 2025 | Revised: 28 February 2026 | Accepted: 6 March 2026 | Published online: 24 April 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
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Abstract

Organoids hold great promise for modeling development, disease, and patient-specific therapy, but their translation is limited by poor vascularization, lack of immune and neural components, low reproducibility, and difficulties in scale-up. 3D bioprinting can address these bottlenecks by enabling digitally guided, spatially precise deposition of bioinks to construct multiscale architectures and perfusable channel networks, yet matching printing principles with material systems remains a central challenge. Unlike existing reviews that focus on isolated technologies or materials, this review introduces a cohesive paradigm that systematically links assembly mechanisms, material properties, and organoid functions along a mechanism–material–function axis. Its core breakthrough shifts the field from empirical guesswork to on-demand engineered design. We analyzed physicochemical mechanisms, such as ionic crosslinking, hydrophobic interactions, dynamic covalent bonding, and photoinitiated polymerization, and mapped them to tunable metrics, including modulus, degradation kinetics, mass-transport capacity, and bioactive delivery. Based on this mapping, we developed a full-chain decision framework for technology selection, material design, and process-parameter optimization, and proposed a predictive, reproducible formulation strategy. By transforming organoid fabrication from an empirical practice into an engineering discipline, this framework enables predictable and scalable organoid fabrication for regenerative medicine, drug discovery, and disease modeling applications through standardized process-parameter optimization and material recipe design.

Graphical abstract
Keywords
3D bioprinting
Organoids
Bioinks
Crosslinking methods
Bioapplications
Funding
This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (grant number: 82372119), the Fujian Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (grant number: 2024J02003), and the Health Research Project of Hunan Provincial Health Commission (grant number: 20257724).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
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International Journal of Bioprinting, Electronic ISSN: 2424-8002 Print ISSN: 2424-7723, Published by AccScience Publishing
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