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RESEARCH ARTICLE

PLA-based bone tissue engineering scaffolds incorporating hydroxyapatite and bioactive glass using digital light processing

Engin Gepek1,2,3 ,  Fateme Fayyazbakhsh2,4,5* ,  Lev Suliandziga2 ,  Vadym N. Mochalin6,7 ,  Osman Iyibilgin8,9 ,  Yue-Wern Huang5,10 ,  Ming C. Leu2,4,5
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1 Institute of Natural Sciences, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey
2 Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, USA
3 Mechanical Engineering Department, Turkish-German University, Istanbul, Turkey
4 Intelligence System Center, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, USA
5 Center for Biomedical Research, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, USA
6 Department of Chemistry, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, USA
7 Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, USA
8 Biomaterials, Energy, Photocatalysis, Enzyme Technology, Nano & Advanced Materials, Additive Manufacturing, Environmental Applications and Sustainability Research & Development Group (BIOEAMS R&D Group), Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey
9 Mechanical Engineering Department, School/Faculty, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey
10 Department of Biological Sciences, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, USA
IJB 2025, 11(2), 573–598; https://doi.org/10.36922/IJB025040029
Submitted: 21 January 2025 | Accepted: 26 February 2025 | Published: 26 February 2025
© 2025 by the Author(s).. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
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Abstract

Bone tissue engineering (BTE) aims to repair bone defects using biocompatible materials with tailored geometries and pore structures, providing appropriate mechanical support and control over biodegradation kinetics to promote bone growth. In this study, we utilized digital light processing (DLP) 3D printing to fabricate scaffolds with varying pore sizes using polymer–ceramic slurries composed of polylactic acid (PLA) as the main polymer matrix, incorporated with hydroxyapatite (HA) and bioactive borate glass (BBG) at various ratios. We studied the effect of composition on rheological behavior, printability, mechanical properties, bioactivity, degradation rate, and biocompatibility. While HA increased viscosity and reduced printing accuracy, it also improved mechanical properties and bioactivity. BBG increased the hydrophilicity and shape fidelity of the scaffold. Both HA and BBG enhanced the compressive mechanical properties by reinforcing the polymer matrix with ceramic particles. To study the scaffold’s bioactivity, samples were immersed in simulated body fluid for 4 weeks. Both ceramic additives enhanced the bioactivity of PLA scaffolds, evidenced by the formation of a secondary HA layer on the scaffold surface. Among the scaffolds studied, PLA-BBG exhibited the highest osteocyte viability, followed by PLA-HA and then plain PLA samples. Our findings highlight the potential of DLP 3D printing for the fabrication of tailored polymer–ceramic scaffolds for BTE and other biomedical applications.

Graphical abstract
Keywords
Bioactivity
Bioactive borate glass
Biodegradation
Bone tissue engineering
Digital light processing
Hydrophilicity
Hydroxyapatite
Polylactic acid
Funding
This work was supported by TÜBİTAK Directorate of Science Fellowships Grant 2214 Programmes (BİDEB) and a seed grant from the Missouri S&T Center for Biomedical Research.
Conflict of interest
Ming Leu serves as the Editorial Board Member of the journal, but did not in any way involve in the editorial and peer-review process conducted for this paper, directly or indirectly. Other authors declare they have no competing interests.
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International Journal of Bioprinting, Electronic ISSN: 2424-8002 Print ISSN: 2424-7723, Published by AccScience Publishing
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