AccScience Publishing / MI / Online First / DOI: 10.36922/MI026070021
Submit to MI
Cite this article
1
Download
50
Views
Journal Browser
Volume | Year
Issue
Search
Forthcoming Issue
Current Issue
View All
News and Announcements
View All
REVIEW ARTICLE

Vaccines and non-antibiotic therapeutics for combating antimicrobial resistance: From prevention to precision interventions

Babatunde Ibrahim Olowu1,6* ,  Abdulhakeem Opeyemi Azeez2 ,  Shammah Oluwaseyi Adeyemi3 ,  Nahimah Opeyemi Idris2 ,  Chizaram Blessing Ukauwa4 ,  Maryam Ebunoluwa Zakariya5 ,  Oluwatomisin Omolola Solesi6 ,  Oluwaloni Bolaji Tinubu6
Show Less
1 Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
2 Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria
3 Department of Veterinary Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
4 Department of Animal Health and Production, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Abuja, Abuja, Nigeria
5 Division of Epidemiology, Edinburgh Medical School, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
6 Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
MI, 026070021 https://doi.org/10.36922/MI026070021
Received: 15 February 2025 | Revised: 31 March 2026 | Accepted: 1 April 2026 | Published online: 15 May 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
Download PDF
XML
Cite
Abstract

 Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses an escalating threat to global health by compromising the effectiveness of conventional antibiotics and increasing the risk of treatment failure for common infections. As the development of new antibiotics lags behind the rapid emergence of resistant pathogens, alternative strategies are urgently needed to sustain effective infection management. Vaccines and non-antibiotic therapeutics represent complementary approaches that can reduce reliance on conventional antimicrobials while limiting the selective pressures that drive resistance. While vaccinations prevent infections, reduce pathogen transmission, and decrease antibiotic consumption at both individual and population levels, precision therapeutics, in parallel, enable targeted treatment of resistant infections while preserving host microbial ecology. This review synthesizes current evidence on the role of vaccines as underutilized tools for AMR mitigation and examines emerging non-antibiotic therapeutic strategies with translational and clinical potential. Beyond individual modalities, we propose an integrated framework that combines prevention, precision interventions, stewardship, and surveillance to enhance AMR control. Key considerations include research priorities, regulatory pathways, implementation challenges, and equitable access across diverse healthcare settings. By shifting from a predominantly antibiotic-centered approach toward prevention and targeted biologic interventions, these strategies offer a sustainable pathway to reduce the burden of AMR and preserve the effectiveness of existing therapies.

Keywords
Antimicrobial resistance
Vaccines
Non-antibiotic therapeutics
Precision medicine
Global health
Funding
None.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
References
  1. Patra M, Gupta AK., Kumar D, Kumar B. Antimicrobial Resistance: A Rising Global Threat to Public Health. Infect Drug Resist. 2025;18:5419–5437. doi: 10.2147/IDR.S530557
  2. Salam MA, Al-Amin MY, Salam MT, et al. Antimicrobial Resistance: A Growing Serious Threat for Global Public Health. Healthcare. 2023;11.13. doi: 10.3390/healthcare11131946
  3. de Kraker ME, Stewardson AJ, Harbarth S. Will 10 Million People Die a Year due to Antimicrobial Resistance by 2050? PLoS Med. 2016;13(11):e1002184. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002184
  4. Naghavi M, Vollset SE, Ikuta KS, et al. Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance 1990–2021: a systematic analysis with forecasts to 2050. Lancet. 2024;404(10459):1199–1226. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(24)01867-1
  5. Patil S, Singh I, Verma IK, et al. Vaccines as Potential Frontliners Against Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR): A Focused Review. Infection and drug resistance. Infect Drug Resist. 2025;18:5023–5041. doi: 10.2147/IDR.S544665
  6. Gabutti G. (2022). Available evidence and potential for vaccines for reduction in antibiotic prescriptions. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2022;18(7):2151291. doi: 10.1080/21645515.2022.2151291
  7. van Heuvel L, Paget J, Dückers M, Caini S. The impact of influenza and pneumococcal vaccination on antibiotic use: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2023;12(1):70. doi: 10.1186/s13756-023-01272-6
  8. Muteeb G, Kazi RNA, Aatif M, Azhar A, Oirdi ME, Farhan M. Antimicrobial resistance: Linking molecular mechanisms to public health impact. SLAS Discov. 2025;33:100232. doi: 10.1016/j.slasd.2025.100232
  9. Hickson SM, Ledger EL, Wells TJ. Emerging antimicrobial therapies for Gram-negative infections in human clinical use. Npj Antimicrob Resist. 2025;3(1):16. doi: 10.1038/s44259-025-00087-2
  10. Sijbom M, Büchner FL, Saadah NH, Numans ME, De Boer MGJ. Trends in antibiotic selection pressure generated in primary care and their association with sentinel antimicrobial resistance patterns in Europe. J Antimicrob Chemother.2025;78(5):1245–1252. doi: 10.1093/JAC/DKAD082
  11. Hasso-Agopsowicz M, Sparrow E, Cameron AM, et al. The role of vaccines in reducing antimicrobial resistance: A review of potential impact of vaccines on AMR and insights across 16 vaccines and pathogens. Vaccine. 2024;42(19):S1– S8. doi: 10.1016/J.VACCINE.2024.06.017
  12. Gianacas C, Muscatello D, Blogg S, et al. Effectiveness of Influenza Vaccination in Reducing Subsequent Antibiotic Prescribing in Young Children Attending Australian General Practices—A Case-Control Study. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2022;11(6):283–290. doi: 10.1093/JPIDS/PIAC021
  13. Jansen KU, Anderson AS. The role of vaccines in fighting antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2018;14(9):2142–2149. doi: 10.1080/21645515.2018.1476814
  14. Klugman KP, Black S. Impact of existing vaccines in reducing antibiotic resistance: Primary and secondary effects. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2018;115(51):12896–12901. doi: 10.1073/PNAS.1721095115
  15. Gholami A, Mohkam M, Soleimanian S, Sadraeian, M., Lauto A. Bacterial nanotechnology as a paradigm in targeted cancer therapeutic delivery and immunotherapy. Microsyst Nanoeng. 2024;10(1):113. doi: 10.1038/s41378-024-00743-z
  16. Kumar R, Vora A, Rampal R, Kulkarni N, Taur S. The Role of Adult Pneumococcal Vaccination in Combating Antimicrobial Resistance: An Indian Perspective. J Assoc Physicians India. 2025;73(5S):35–38. doi: 10.59556/JAPI.73.0967
  17. MacAlasdair N, Pöntinen AK, Ling C, et al. Genetic population structure of Haemophilus influenzae at local and global scales. Nat Microbiol. 2025;10(12):3136–3147. doi: 10.1038/s41564-025-02171-9
  18. Fleming-Dutra KE, Hersh AL, Shapiro DJ, et al. Prevalence of Inappropriate Antibiotic Prescriptions Among US Ambulatory Care Visits, 2010-2011. JAMA. 2016;315(17):1864–1873. doi: 10.1001/JAMA.2016.4151
  19. Piltcher OB, Kosugi EM, Sakano E, et al. How to avoid the inappropriate use of antibiotics in upper respiratory tract infections? A position statement from an expert panel. Braz J Otorhinolaryngol. 2018;84(3):265–279. doi: 10.1016/J.BJORL.2018.02.001
  20. Nampota-Nkomba N, Carey ME, Jamka LP, Fecteau N, Neuzil KM. Using Typhoid Conjugate Vaccines to Prevent Disease, Promote Health Equity, and Counter Drug-Resistant Typhoid Fever. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2023;10(Suppl 1):S6–S12. doi: 10.1093/OFID/OFAD022
  21. Yousafzai MT, Karim S, Qureshi S, et al. Effectiveness of typhoid conjugate vaccine against culture-confirmed Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi in an extensively drug-resistant outbreak setting of Hyderabad, Pakistan: a cohort study. Lancet Glob Heal. 2021;9(8):e1154–e1162. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(21)00255-2
  22. Crum-Cianflone N, Sullivan E. Meningococcal Vaccinations. Infect Dis Ther. 2016;5:2,5(2):89–112. doi: 10.1007/s40121-016-0107-0
  23. Borrow R, Alarcón P, Carlos J, et al. The Global Meningococcal Initiative: global epidemiology, the impact of vaccines on meningococcal disease and the importance of herd protection. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2017;16(4):313–328. doi: 10.1080/14760584.2017.1258308
  24. McMillan M, Chandrakumar A, Wang HL R, et al. Effectiveness of Meningococcal Vaccines at Reducing Invasive Meningococcal Disease and Pharyngeal Neisseria meningitidis Carriage: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73(3):e609–e619. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciaa1733
  25. Marshall HS, Molina JM, Berlaimont V, et al. Management and prevention of Neisseria meningitidis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae infections in the context of evolving antimicrobial resistance trends. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2024;44(2):233–250. doi: 10.1007/s10096-024-04968-8
  26. Galiza EP, Nakebembe E, Mboizi R, Okek E, Le Doare K. Maternal vaccination to prevent neonatal infections and combat antimicrobial resistance. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2025;30(4):101680. doi: 10.1016/j.siny.2025.101680
  27. Baxter R, Bartlett J, Fireman B, Lewis E, Klein NP. Effectiveness of vaccination during pregnancy to prevent infant pertussis. Pediatrics. 2017;139(5). doi: 10.1542/peds.2016-4091
  28. Miller WR, Arias CA. ESKAPE pathogens: antimicrobial resistance, epidemiology, clinical impact and therapeutics. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2024;22(10):598–616. doi: 10.1038/s41579-024-01054-w
  29. Micoli F, Bagnoli F, Rappuoli R, Serruto D. The role of vaccines in combatting antimicrobial resistance. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2021;19(5):287–302. doi: 10.1038/S41579-020-00506-3
  30. Frost I, Sati H, Garcia-Vello P, et al. The role of bacterial vaccines in the fight against antimicrobial resistance: an analysis of the preclinical and clinical development pipeline. Lancet Microbe. 2023; 4(2):e113–e125. doi: 10.1016/S2666-5247(22)00303-2
  31. Alaimo C, Karaky N, Lawrence R, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of a Klebsiella pneumoniae tetravalent bioconjugate vaccine (Kleb4V) administered to healthy adults: A first time in human phase I/II randomised and controlled study. J Infect Dis. 2026;233(2):e342–e351. doi: 10.1093/INFDIS/JIAF600
  32. Abara WE, Bernstein KT, Lewis FM T, et al. Effectiveness of a serogroup B outer membrane vesicle meningococcal vaccine against gonorrhoea: a retrospective observational study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022;22(7):1021–1029. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(21)00812-4
  33. Padeniya TN, Hui BB, Wood JG, Seib KL, Regan DG. The potential impact of a vaccine on Neisseria gonorrhoeae prevalence among heterosexuals living in a high prevalence setting. Vaccine. 2023;41(38):5553–5561. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.07.048
  34. Fu H, Lewnard JA, Frost I, Laxminarayan R, Arinaminpathy N. Modelling the global burden of drug-resistant tuberculosis avertable by a post-exposure vaccine. Nat Commun. 2021; 12(1). doi: 10.1038/S41467-020-20731-X
  35. Li J, Liu D, Li X, et al. RNA vaccines: The dawn of a new age for tuberculosis? Hum Vaccines Immunother. 2025;21(1):2469333. doi: 10.1080/21645515.2025.2469333
  36. Raso MM, Arato V, Gasperini G, Micoli F. Toward a Shigella Vaccine: Opportunities and Challenges to Fight an Antimicrobial-Resistant Pathogen. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24(5):4649. doi: 10.3390/IJMS24054649
  37. Excler JL, Saluja T, Wilder-Smith A, et al. Non-typhoidal Salmonella combination vaccines: clinical development plan and regulatory considerations. Vaccine. 2025;62:127515. doi: 10.1016/J.VACCINE.2025.127515
  38. Hanumunthadu B, Demissie T, Greenland M, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of the invasive non-typhoidal Salmonella (iNTS)-GMMA vaccine: a first-in-human, randomised, dose escalation trial. eBioMedicine. 2025;119,105903. doi: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2025.105903
  39. Toth DJA, Keegan LT, Samore MH, et al. Modeling the potential impact of administering vaccines against Clostridioides difficile infection to individuals in healthcare facilities. Vaccine. 2020;38(37):5927–5932. doi: 10.1016/J.VACCINE.2020.06.081
  40. Donskey CJ, Dubberke ER, Klein NP, et al. CLOVER (CLOstridium difficile Vaccine Efficacy tRial) Study: A Phase 3, Randomized Trial Investigating the Efficacy and Safety of a Detoxified Toxin A/B Vaccine in Adults 50 Years and Older at Increased Risk of Clostridioides difficile Infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2024;79(6):1503–1511. doi: 10.1093/CID/CIAE410
  41. Leong, K. Y., Tham, S. K., Poh, C. L. Revolutionizing immunization: a comprehensive review of mRNA vaccine technology and applications. Virol J. 2025;221.2025;22(1):71. doi: 10.1186/S12985-025-02645-6
  42. Imani S, Lv S, Qian H, et al. Current innovations in mRNA vaccines for targeting multidrug-resistant ESKAPE pathogens. Biotechnol Adv. 2025;79,108492. doi: 10.1016/J.BIOTECHADV.2024.108492
  43. Travieso T, Li J, Mahesh S, Mello JDFRE, Blasi M. The use of viral vectors in vaccine development. Npj Vaccines. 2022;7(1):75. doi: 10.1038/s41541-022-00503-y
  44. Cid R, Bolívar J. Platforms for Production of Protein-Based Vaccines: From Classical to Next-Generation Strategies. Biomol. 2021;11(8):1072. doi: 10.3390/BIOM11081072
  45. Micoli F, Adamo R, Nakakana U. Outer Membrane Vesicle Vaccine Platforms. Biodrugs. 2023; 38(1):47–59. doi: 10.1007/S40259-023-00627-0
  46. Tiwana G, Cock IE., Taylor SM., Cheesman MJ. Beyond Antibiotics: Repurposing Non-Antibiotic Drugs as Novel Antibacterial Agents to Combat Resistance. Int J Mol Sci. 2025;26(20):9880. doi: 10.3390/IJMS26209880
  47. Yarahmadi A, Najafiyan H, Yousefi MH, et al. Beyond antibiotics: exploring multifaceted approaches to combat bacterial resistance in the modern era: a comprehensive review. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2025;15:1493915. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2025.1493915
  48. Lagadinou M, Onisor MO, Rigas A, et al. Antimicrobial Properties on Non-Antibiotic Drugs in the Era of Increased Bacterial Resistance. Antibiot. 2020;9(3):107. doi: 10.3390/ANTIBIOTICS9030107
  49. Teymouri S, Yousefi MH, Heidari SM, Farokhi S, Afkhami, H., Kashfi, M. Beyond antibiotics: mesenchymal stem cells and bacteriophages-new approaches to combat bacterial resistance in wound infections. Mol Biol Rep. 2024;52(1):64. doi: 10.1007/S11033-024-10163-X
  50. Ling H, Lou X, Luo Q, He Z, Sun M, Sun J. Recent advances in bacteriophage-based therapeutics: Insight into the post-antibiotic era. Acta Pharm Sin B. 2022;12(12):4348–4364. doi: 10.1016/J.APSB.2022.05.007
  51. Mondal A, Teimouri H, Kolomeisky AB. Elucidating Physicochemical Features of Holin Proteins Responsible for Bacterial Cell Lysis. J Phys Chem B. 2024;128(29):7129– 7140. doi: 10.1021/ACS.JPCB.4C03040
  52. Olawade DB, Fapohunda O, Egbon E, et al. Phage therapy: A targeted approach to overcoming antibiotic resistance. Microb Pathog. 2024;197:107088. doi: 10.1016/J.MICPATH.2024.107088
  53. Peng H, Borg RE, Dow LP, Pruitt BL, Chen IA. Controlled phage therapy by photothermal ablation of specific bacterial species using gold nanorods targeted by chimeric phages. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2020;117(4):1951–1961. doi: 10.1073/PNAS.1913234117
  54. Peng C, Hanawa T, Azam AH, et al. Silviavirus phage ɸMR003 displays a broad host range against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus of human origin. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2019;103(18):7751–7765. doi: 10.1007/S00253-019-10039-2
  55. Rossitto M, Fiscarelli EV, Rosati P. Challenges and promises for planning future clinical research into bacteriophage therapy against Pseudomonas aeruginosa in cystic fibrosis. An argumentative review. Front. Microbiol. 2018;9. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00775
  56. Anomaly J. The Future of Phage: Ethical Challenges of Using Phage Therapy to Treat Bacterial Infections. Public Health Ethics. 2020;13(1):82–88. doi: 10.1093/PHE/PHAA003
  57. Zeng Y, Li P, Liu S, Shen M, Liu Y, Zhou X. Salmonella enteritidis acquires phage resistance through a point mutation in rfbD but loses some of its environmental adaptability. Vet Res. 2024;55(1):85. doi: 10.1186/S13567-024-01341-7
  58. Zai MJ, Cheesman MJ, Cock IE, Zai MJ, Cheesman MJ, Cock IE. Targeted Antimicrobial Therapies: A Solution to Overcoming Antimicrobial Resistance in Humans. BioMed. 2024;4(3):318–337. doi: 10.3390/BIOMED4030026
  59. Moreira GMSG, Gronow S, Dübel S, et al. Phage Display- Derived Monoclonal Antibodies Against Internalins A and B Allow Specific Detection of Listeria monocytogenes. Front. Public Heal. 2022;10:712657. doi: 10.3389/FPUBH.2022.712657
  60. Wang-Lin S, Balthasar J. Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Considerations for the Use of Monoclonal Antibodies in the Treatment of Bacterial Infections. Antibodies. 2018;7(1):5. doi: 10.3390/ANTIB7010005
  61. Chen HC, Pan YL, Chen Y, et al. Monoclonal Antibodies as a Therapeutic Strategy against Multidrug-Resistant Bacterial Infections in a Post-COVID-19 Era. Life. 2024;14(2):246. doi: 10.3390/LIFE14020246
  62. Vacca F, Sala C, Rappuoli R, Vacca F, Sala C, Rappuoli R. Monoclonal Antibodies for Bacterial Pathogens: Mechanisms of Action and Engineering Approaches for Enhanced Effector Functions. Biomed. 2022;10(9):2126. doi: 10.3390/BIOMEDICINES10092126
  63. François B, Jafri HS, Chastre J, et al. COMBACTE Consortium and the SAATELLITE Study Group. Efficacy and safety of suvratoxumab for prevention of Staphylococcus aureus ventilator-associated pneumonia (SAATELLITE): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, phase 2 pilot trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2021;21(9):1313–1323. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30995-6
  64. Zurawski DV, McLendon MK. Monoclonal Antibodies as an Antibacterial Approach Against Bacterial Pathogens. Antibiotics. 2020;9(4):155. doi: 10.3390/ANTIBIOTICS9040155
  65. Pintea I, Petricau C, Dumitrascu D, et al. Hypersensitivity reactions to monoclonal antibodies: Classification and treatment approach (Review). Exp Med. 2021;22(3):1–8. doi: 10.3892/ETM.2021.10381
  66. Piscaglia M, Scaglione G, Genovese C, et al. Exploring Human Use of Monoclonal Antibodies Against Critical Bacteria: A Scoping Review of Clinical Trials. Infect Dis Ther. 2025;14(8):1619–1647. doi: 10.1007/s40121-025-01195-2
  67. Mayorga-Ramos A, Zúñiga-Miranda J, Carrera-Pacheco SE, Barba-Ostria C, Guamán LP. CRISPR-Cas-Based Antimicrobials: Design, Challenges, and Bacterial Mechanisms of Resistance. ACS Infect Dis. 2023;9(7):1283– 1302. doi: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.2c00649
  68. Sen D, Mukhopadhyay P. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) management using CRISPR-Cas based genome editing. Gene Genome Ed. 2024;7:100031. doi: 10.1016/J.GGEDIT.2024.100031
  69. Selim HMRM, Gomaa FAM, Alshahrani MY, Aboshanab KM. Role of CRISPR-Cas system as a new approach in fighting the antimicrobial resistance of bacterial and viral pathogens. Infect Dis Immun. 2025;5(2):127–137. doi: 10.1097/ID9.0000000000000149
  70. Getahun YA, Ali DA, Taye BW, Alemayehu YA. Multidrug- Resistant Microbial Therapy Using Antimicrobial Peptides and the CRISPR/Cas9 System. Vet Med Res Rep. 2022;13:173–190. doi: 10.2147/VMRR.S366533
  71. Ekwebelem OC, Aleke J, Ofielu E, Nnorom-Dike O. Retraction: CRISPR-Cas9 System: A Revolutionary Tool in the Fight Against Antimicrobial Resistance (Infectious Microbes & Diseases). Infect Microbes Dis. 2021;3(2):51–56. doi: 10.1097/IM9.0000000000000049
  72. Pursey E, Sünderhauf D, Gaze WH, Westra ER, van Houte S. CRISPR-Cas antimicrobials: Challenges and future prospects. PLOS Pathog. 2018;14(6):e1006990. doi: 10.1371/JOURNAL.PPAT.1006990
  73. Zhang R, Zhou Q, Huang S, Zhang N, Sun D. Advancements in CRISPR-Cas-based strategies for combating antimicrobial resistance. Microbiol Res. 2025;298:128232. doi: 10.1016/J.MICRES.2025.128232
  74. Dehbanipour R, Ghalavand Z. Anti-virulence therapeutic strategies against bacterial infections: recent advances. Germs. 2022;12(2):262–275. doi: 10.18683/GERMS.2022.1328
  75. Filipić B, Ušjak D, Rambaher MH, Oljacic S, Milenković MT. Evaluation of novel compounds as anti-bacterial or anti-virulence agents. Microbiol Res. 2024;14:1370062. doi: 10.3389/FCIMB.2024.1370062
  76. Ogawara H. Possible drugs for the treatment of bacterial infections in the future: anti-virulence drugs. J Antibiot. 2021;74(1):24–41. doi: 10.1038/S41429-020-0344-Z
  77. Zhang H, Zhang Z, Li J, Qin G. New Strategies for Biocontrol of Bacterial Toxins and Virulence: Focusing on Quorum- Sensing Interference and Biofilm Inhibition. Toxins. 2023,15(9):570. doi: 10.3390/TOXINS15090570
  78. Khan MA, Wang S, Zhu H. Targeting quorum sensing: natural product-based inhibition and quenching for antimicrobial strategies. Future Microbiol. 2025;20(15):1049–1068. doi: 10.1080/17460913.2025.2576429
  79. Imperi F, Chen W, Smani Y. Editorial: Antivirulence Drugs Against Bacterial Infections. Front. Microbiol. 2021;12:690672. doi: 10.3389/FMICB.2021.690672
  80. Pitashny M, Kesten I, Shlon D, Hur D, et al. The Future of Microbiome Therapeutics. Drugs. 2025;85(2):117–125. doi: 10.1007/S40265-024-02107-3
  81. Lim ECN, Lim CED. Microbiome-Targeted Therapies in Gastrointestinal Diseases: Clinical Evidence and Emerging Innovations. Acta Microbiol Hell. 2025;70(3):36. doi: 10.3390/AMH70030036
  82. Monday L, Tillotson G, Chopra T. Microbiota-Based Live Biotherapeutic Products for Clostridioides Difficile Infection- The Devil is in the Details. Infect Drug Resist. 2024;17:623–639. doi: 10.2147/IDR.S419243
  83. Ford AC, Harris LA, Lacy BE, Quigley EMM, Moayyedi P. Systematic review with meta-analysis: the efficacy of prebiotics, probiotics, synbiotics and antibiotics in irritable bowel syndrome. Aliment Pharm Ther. 2018;48(10):1044– 1060. doi: 10.1111/APT.15001
  84. Kim TH, Cho BK, Lee DH. Synthetic Biology-Driven Microbial Therapeutics for Disease Treatment. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2024;34(10):1947–1958. doi: 10.4014/JMB.2407.07004
  85. Hwang IY, Koh E, Kim HR, Yew WS, Chang MW. Reprogrammable microbial cell-based therapeutics against antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Drug Resist. Updat. 2016;27:59– 71. doi: 10.1016/J.DRUP.2016.06.002
  86. Nazir A, Hussain FHN, Raza A. Advancing microbiota therapeutics: the role of synthetic biology in engineering microbial communities for precision medicine. Front. Bioeng Biotechnol. 2024;12:1–14. doi: 10.3389/fbioe.2024.1511149
  87. Rong G, Corrie SR, Clark HA. In Vivo Biosensing: Progress and Perspectives. ACS Sens. 2017;2(3):327–338. doi: 10.1021/ACSSENSORS.6B00834
  88. Bober JR, Beisel CL, Nair NU. Synthetic Biology Approaches to Engineer Probiotics and Members of the Human Microbiota for Biomedical Applications. Annu Rev Biomed Eng. 2018;20(1):277–300. doi: 10.1146/ANNUREV-BIOENG-062117-121019
  89. Kim MK, Suh GA, Cullen GD, et al. Bacteriophage therapy for multidrug-resistant infections: current technologies and therapeutic approaches. J Clin Invest. 2025;135(5). doi: 10.1172/JCI187996
  90. Walton J. The role of non-governmental organizations in vaccine development and delivery. Int J Heal Gov. 2017;22(3):152–160. doi: 10.1108/IJHG-02-2017-0006
  91. Guignard A, Praet N, Jusot V, Bakker M, Baril L. Introducing new vaccines in low- and middle-income countries: challenges and approaches. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2019;18(2):119–131. doi: 10.1080/14760584.2019.1574224
  92. Angers-Loustau A, Petrillo M, Bengtsson-Palme J, et al. The challenges of designing a benchmark strategy for bioinformatics pipelines in the identification of antimicrobial resistance determinants using next generation sequencing technologies. F1000Research. 2018;7:459. doi: 10.12688/f1000research.14509.2
  93. Petrillo M, Fabbri M, Kagkli DM, et al. A roadmap for the generation of benchmarking resources for antimicrobial resistance detection using next generation sequencing. F1000Research. 2022;10:80. doi: 10.12688/f1000research.39214.2
  94. Ali T, Ahmed S, Aslam M. Artificial Intelligence for Antimicrobial Resistance Prediction: Challenges and Opportunities towards Practical Implementation. Antibiotics. 2023;12(3):523. doi: 10.3390/antibiotics12030523
  95. León-Buitimea A, Garza-Cárdenas CR, Román-García MF, Ramírez-Díaz CA, Ulloa-Ramírez M, Morones-Ramírez JR. Nanomaterials-Based Combinatorial Therapy as a Strategy to Combat Antibiotic Resistance. Antibiotics. 2022;11(6):794. doi: 10.3390/antibiotics11060794
  96. Aliu OO, Janet AO, Chukwudi CM, Tolulope OK, Abdul S. (2024). Next-Generation strategies to combat antimicrobial resistance: Integrating genomics, CRISPR, and novel therapeutics for effective treatment. Eng Sci Technol J. 2024;5(7):2284–2303. doi: 10.51594/estj.v5i7.1344
  97. Rehman K, Jabeen K, Chohan TA, Akash MSH. Databases, multiplexed PCR, and next-generation sequencing technologies for tracking AMR genes in the environment. In: Antibiotics and Antimicrobial Resistance Genes in the Environment. Elsevier; 2019:223–233. Advances in Environment Pollution Research Series; vol 1. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-818882-8.00015-2
  98. Madden DE, Webb JR, Steinig EJ, Currie BJ, Price EP, Sarovich DS. Taking the next-gen step: Comprehensive antimicrobial resistance detection from Burkholderia pseudomallei. eBioMedicine. 2021;63:103152. doi: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2020.103152
  99. Johnson KB, Wei W, Weeraratne D, et al. Precision Medicine, AI, and the Future of Personalized Health Care. Clin Transl Sci. 2021;14(1):86–93. doi: 10.1111/cts.12884
  100. Sagar A, Kolluru V, Jaiswal U, Kumavat G, Hole SR, Kumar A. Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence for Predictive Modeling in Antimicrobial Resistance Data Sets, Challenges, and Future Directions. In: Proceeding of the 2025 3rd International Conferernce on Smart Systems for application in Electrical Sciences (ICSSES). 2025;1–6. doi: 10.1109/ICSSES64899.2025.11009316
  101. Angeles Flores G, Cusumano G, Venanzoni R, Angelini P. Advancements in Antibacterial Therapy: Feature Papers. Microorganisms. 2025;13(3):557. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms13030557
  102. Gebre MS, Brito LA, Tostanoski LH, Edwards DK, Carfi A, Barouch DH. Novel approaches for vaccine development. Cell. 2021;184(6):1589–1603. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2021.02.030
  103. Yero D, Conchillo-Solé O, Daura X. Antigen Discovery in Bacterial Panproteomes. I In: Pfeifer, B.A., Hill, A. (eds) Vaccine Delivery Technology. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 2183. 2021;43–62. Springer US. doi: 10.1007/978-1-0716-0795-4_5
  104. Gul S, Ahmad S, Ullah A, et al. Designing a Recombinant Vaccine against Providencia rettgeri Using Immunoinformatics Approach. Vaccines. 2022;10(2):189. doi: 10.3390/vaccines10020189
  105. Ismail M, Sajid Z, Ali A, Wu X, Muhammad SA, Shaikh RS. Prediction of Prophylactic Peptide Vaccine Candidates for Human Papillomavirus (HPV): Immunoinformatics and Reverse Vaccinology Approaches. Curr Proteom. 2021;18(2):178–192. doi: 10.2174/1570164617999200505095802
  106. Jafari E, Mahmoodi S. Design, expression, and purification of a multi-epitope vaccine against Helicobacter Pylori based on Melittin as an adjuvant. Microb Pathog. 2021;157:104970. doi: 10.1016/j.micpath.2021.104970
  107. Tahir Ul Qamar M, Ismail S, Ahmad S, et al. Development of a Novel Multi-Epitope Vaccine Against Crimean- Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus: An Integrated Reverse Vaccinology, Vaccine Informatics and Biophysics Approach. Front Immunol. 2021;12:669812. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.669812
  108. Afzali F, Ghahremanifard P, Ranjbar MM, Salimi M. Exploring PLAC1 Structure and Underlying Mechanisms to Design a Derivative Vaccine Against Breast Cancer Progression; In-Silico Study. Curr Proteomics. 2019;17(5):379–391. doi: 10.2174/1570164617666191203111451
  109. Afshan G, Yaseen N, Ali SH, Khan AU. Immunoinformatics- Based development of a Multi-Epitope vaccine candidate targeting coinfection by Klebsiella pneumoniae and Acinetobacter baumannii. BMC Infect Dis. 2025;25(1):894. doi: 10.1186/s12879-025-11242-5
  110. De La Fuente Tagarro C, Martín-González D, De Lucas A, Bordel S, Santos-Beneit F. Current Knowledge on CRISPR Strategies Against Antimicrobial-Resistant Bacteria. Antibiotics. 2024;13(12):1141. doi: 10.3390/antibiotics13121141
  111. Gencay YE, Jasinskytė D, Robert C, et al. Engineered phage with antibacterial CRISPR–Cas selectively reduce E. coli burden in mice. Nat Biotechnol. 2023;42(2):265–274. doi: 10.1038/s41587-023-01759-y
  112. Rahimian M, Jafari-Gharabaghlou D, Mohammadi E, Zarghami N. A New Insight into Phage Combination Therapeutic Approaches Against Drug-Resistant Mixed Bacterial Infections. PHAGE Appl Res. 2024;5(4):203–222. doi: 10.1089/phage.2024.0011
  113. World Health Organization. Leveraging vaccines to reduce antibiotic use and prevent antimicrobial resistance: An action framework and annex to Immunization Agenda 2030. 2021. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/ leveraging-vaccines-to-reduce-antibiotic-use-and-prevent-antimicrobial-resistance [Last accessed on 12 December, 2025].
  114. Clemente-Suárez VJ, Redondo-Flórez L, Bustamante- Sánchez A, Martín-Rodríguez A, Yáñez-Sepúlveda R, Tornero-Aguilera JF. Biometric Strategies to Improve Vaccine Immunogenicity and Effectiveness. Biomimetics. 2025;10(7):439. doi: 10.3390/biomimetics10070439
  115. La Guidara C, Adamo R, Sala C, Micoli F. Vaccines and Monoclonal Antibodies as Alternative Strategies to Antibiotics to Fight Antimicrobial Resistance. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25(10):5487. doi: 10.3390/ijms25105487
  116. Li F-Y, Tan X-E, Shimamori Y, et al. (2024). Phagemid-based capsid system for CRISPR-Cas13a antimicrobials targeting methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus Commun Biol. 2024;7(1):1129. doi: 10.1038/s42003-024-06754-w
  117. Wan P, Cui S, Ma Z, et al. Reversal of mcr-1-Mediated Colistin Resistance in Escherichia coli by CRISPR-Cas9 System. Infect Drug Resist. 2020;13:1171–1178. doi: 10.2147/IDR.S244885
  118. Gupta S, Kumar P, Rathi B, et al. Targeting of Uropathogenic Escherichia coli papG gene using CRISPR-dot nanocomplex reduced virulence of UPEC. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):17801. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-97224-4
  119. Junya O, Jumpei F, Kinoshita M, et al. Effects of the combination of anti-PcrV antibody and bacteriophage therapy in a mouse model of Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia. Microbiol Spectr.2024;12(12):e0178124. doi: 10.1128/spectrum.01781-24
  120. Neil K, Allard N, Roy P, et al. High‐efficiency delivery of CRISPR‐Cas9 by engineered probiotics enables precise microbiome editing. Mol Syst Biol. 2021;17(10):e10335. doi: 10.15252/msb.202110335
  121. Zalewska-Piątek B. Phage Therapy—Challenges, Opportunities and Future Prospects. Pharm. 2023;16(12):1638. doi: 10.3390/ph16121638
  122. Osman A-H, Kotey FCN, Odoom A, et al. The Potential of Bacteriophage-Antibiotic Combination Therapy in Treating Infections with Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria. Antibiotics. 2023;12(8):1329. doi: 10.3390/antibiotics12081329
  123. Cui L, Watanabe S, Miyanaga K, et al. A Comprehensive Review on Phage Therapy and Phage-Based Drug Development. Antibiotics. 2024;13(9):870. doi: 10.3390/antibiotics13090870
  124. Gordon M, Ramirez P. Efficacy and Experience of Bacteriophages in Biofilm-Related Infections. Antibiotics. 2024;13(2):125. doi: 10.3390/antibiotics13020125
  125. Alam MZ, Maslanka JR, Abt MC. Immunological consequences of microbiome-based therapeutics. Front Immunol. 2023;13:1046472. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1046472
  126. Hariram NP, Mekha KB, Suganthan V, Sudhakar K. Sustainalism: An Integrated Socio-Economic- Environmental Model to Address Sustainable Development and Sustainability. Sustainability. 2023;15(13):10682. doi: 10.3390/su151310682
  127. Bergkessel M, Forte B, Gilbert IH. Small-Molecule Antibiotic Drug Development: Need and Challenges. ACS Infect Dis. 2023;9(11):2062–2071. doi: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.3c00189
Next article in this issue
Share
Back to top
Microbes & Immunity, Electronic ISSN: 3029-2883 Print ISSN: 3041-0886, Published by AccScience Publishing
We use cookies on our website to ensure you get the best experience.
Read more about our cookies here
Accept