AccScience Publishing / IJOCTA / Online First / DOI: 10.36922/IJOCTA025500230
REVIEW ARTICLE

A comprehensive review of intelligent end-to-end networking solutions through the integration of graph neural networks and deep reinforcement learning

Muhammad Kamran1,2,3† Salwa Muhammad Akhtar4† Muhammad Zain ul Abideen5 Junaid Asghar6 Muhammad Farman1,7∗ Aseel Smerat8,9 Mohamad Hafez2,10
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1 Mathematics Research Center, Department of Mathematics Near East University, Mersin, Turkey
2 Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Engineering and Quantity Surviving, INTI International University Colleges, Nilai, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
3 International Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Sciences, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan
4 Department of Information Systems, University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
5 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
6 Department of Computer Science Information Technology, Faculty of Information Technology, University of Lahore, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
7 Research Center of Applied Mathematics, Khazar University, Baku, Azerbaijan
8 Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Educational Sciences, Al-Ahliyya Amman University, Amman, Jordan
9 Department of Biosciences, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
10 Department of Management, Faculty of Management, Shinawatra University, Sam Khok, Pathum Thani, Thailand
†These authors contributed equally to this work.
Received: 14 December 2025 | Revised: 19 January 2026 | Accepted: 26 January 2026 | Published online: 30 April 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution -Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC-by the license) ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ )
Abstract

Topology awareness and scalable, adaptive network control have become critical with the development of 5G/6G, the Internet-of-Things, vehicular networks, and edge computing. Traditional rule-based and centralized networking models are unable to support dynamic topologies, heterogeneous traffic models, and demands with strict quality-of-service requirements. Structural and topological dependencies are encoded using graph neural networks (GNNs) and combined with deep reinforcement learning (DRL) to make decisions sequentially. Exploiting rewards is an avenue toward intelligent end-to-end network optimization. This review is a systematic examination of modern GNN–DRL models implemented in routing, congestion control, chaining of service functions, vehicular communication, and the optimization of optical networks. It also highlights their performance strengths, including topology awareness, cross-topology generalization, high sample efficiency, and high scalability, as well as their weaknesses, such as inference overhead, inconsistent benchmarking practices, low real-time deployability, and sensitivity to noisy or partial state observations. The main findings of this review are: (i) a coherent taxonomy of GNN-based, DRL-based, and hybrid GNN–DRL effective designs; (ii) comparative analysis of algorithms, architecture components, and learning pipelines; (iii) generalized performance trends in major areas of intelligent networking; and (iv) a collection of grounded research directions to be followed in the future, lightweight architecture, transfer learning pipeline, fault tolerant learning, and unified evaluation frameworks. Finally, this review focuses on enabling resilient infrastructure through intelligent, scalable, and autonomous end-to-end networking solutions.

Keywords
Graph neural networks
Deep reinforcement learning
Intelligent networking
End-to-end network optimization
Autonomous network management
Resilient infrastructure
Funding
This work was funded by the Faculty of Engineering and Quantity Surveying, INTI International University Colleges, Nilai, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare they have no competing interests.
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An International Journal of Optimization and Control: Theories & Applications, Electronic ISSN: 2146-5703 Print ISSN: 2146-0957, Published by AccScience Publishing