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REVIEW ARTICLE

Temporality, curvature, responsiveness, and beyond: Dimensional expansion in organoid bioprinting

Mu He1,2,3† ,  Lingzi Liao1,2,3† ,  Ziwei Dai1,2,3 ,  Yangyang Xia1,2,3 ,  Jinyang Xu1,2,3 ,  Zhigang Cai1,2,3* ,  Shang Xie1,2,3*
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1 Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing , China
2 National Center for Stomatology, Beijing , China
3 National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Beijing , China
†These authors contributed equally to this work.
IJB, 026310329 https://doi.org/10.36922/IJB026310329
Received: 28 July 2026 | Revised: 28 August 2026 | Accepted: 1 September 2026 | Published online: 1 September 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
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Abstract

The convergence of organoid technology and three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting has improved control over human tissue models, yet spatial precision at fabrication does not recapitulate the dynamic processes by which tissues develop, remodel, respond to injury, and recover. Here, we frame multidimensional bioprinting by capability rather than as a mature 3D, 4D, 5D, 6D hierarchy. The framework comprises spatial patterning, temporal programming, curvature-aware deposition, environmental responsiveness, and feedback. Direct organoid evidence is strongest for spatially controlled 3D printing and selected temporally programmed systems; multi-axis curvature control is supported mainly by adjacent biofabrication studies, whereas 6D remains a non-standardized and largely conceptual integration of multi-axis fabrication with stimulus responsiveness. We distinguish direct organoid-bioprinting evidence from enabling technologies and conceptual proposals, and evaluate each added capability against matched static 3D controls, longitudinal measurements, and organ-specific functional outcomes. This framework links engineering control to morphogenesis, disease trajectories, and adaptive organoid platforms, while emphasizing that progress should be judged by mechanistic interpretability, predictive performance, and interventional control rather than by dimensional labels alone.

Keywords
Organoid bioprinting
Higher-dimensional bioprinting strategies
Disease modeling
Organoid models
3D bioprinting
6D printing
Funding
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 82373434).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
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International Journal of Bioprinting, Electronic ISSN: 2424-8002 Print ISSN: 2424-7723, Published by AccScience Publishing
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