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RESEARCH ARTICLE

A mobile drop-on-demand laser-assisted printing head integrated with a robotic arm and a target tracking system

Ahad Mohammadi1,2 ,  Shakiba Davani1,2 ,  Christos Boutopoulos1,2,3*
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1 Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
2 Centre de Recherche Hôpital Maisonneuve-Rosemont, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
3 Department of Ophthalmology, University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
IJB, 025320321 https://doi.org/10.36922/IJB025320321
Received: 8 August 2025 | Accepted: 16 September 2025 | Published online: 17 September 2025
© 2025 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
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Abstract

In this work, we present a mobile drop-on-demand (DoD) printing system based on laser-induced side transfer (LIST). By replacing the bulky free-space optics used in previous LIST configurations with a fiber-based laser delivery system, we developed a compact printing head and integrated it as an end-effector onto a robotic arm. Using model inks with viscosities up to 165 cP and time-resolved imaging, we investigated printability, printing dynamics, and the effect of printing head-to-substrate distance on key printing quality metrics. We found that printing quality deteriorates significantly beyond a 3 mm standoff distance. To address motion-induced printing quality loss on dynamic substrates, we integrated a custom-built fiber-optic distance sensor that actively maintains a constant standoff distance in real time. This enabled high-quality printing on moving targets simulating physiological motion. Additionally, we characterized the influence of ink viscosity and laser energy on droplet formation dynamics and ejected volume. Our results demonstrate the feasibility of motion-compensated, laser-assisted DoD printing in dynamic environments, with potential applications in intraoperative tissue engineering.  

Graphical abstract
Keywords
Drop-on-demand
Distance sensor
In situ bioprinting
Laser-induced side transfer
Motion compensation
Robotic
Funding
Christos Boutopoulos acknowledges financial support from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (#527176), the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) (#RGPIN-2025-07077), the Fonds de la recherche en santé du Québec (FRQS) (#312263), and the Canada Foundation for Innovation (#43112).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare they have no competing interests.
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International Journal of Bioprinting, Electronic ISSN: 2424-8002 Print ISSN: 2424-7723, Published by AccScience Publishing
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