AccScience Publishing / IJAMD / Volume 3 / Issue 2 / DOI: 10.36922/IJAMD026160009
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Neha Singh
Sonal Shreya
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REVIEW ARTICLE

A device–circuit–algorithm review of physics-driven platforms for next-generation artificial intelligence

Neha Singh1* ,  Sonal Shreya2*
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1 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
2 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Biomedical Engineering Section, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Central Denmark Region, Denmark
IJAMD 2026, 3(2), 026160009 https://doi.org/10.36922/IJAMD026160009
Received: 15 April 2026 | Revised: 11 June 2026 | Accepted: 17 June 2026 | Published online: 30 June 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
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Abstract

Recent advancements in artificial intelligence(AI) have significantly enhanced the perception and cognition of language and the decision-making process. However, the increase in computational power and energy efficiency has also led to the emergence of computational and energy needs. Traditional Von Neumann architectures, with the separation of memory and processing, are costly due to numerous data transfers between hierarchical memory systems. Therefore, in large-scale AI workloads, energy consumption and data transfer latency are major challenges to scalability and efficiency. Using physical phenomena to compute and combining devices, circuits, and algorithms by co-design, these issues are resolved by physics-driven computing. In-memory operations, nonlinearity, and parallelism are also enabled by resistive switching, spin dynamics, phase transitions, and optical interference at the device level, thereby significantly reducing data transmission and energy consumption. Unless the entire hardware stack, including devices, circuits, architectures, and learning algorithms, is coordinated, one achieves limited system-level benefits. This review presents a unified physics-based AI hardware design by jointly optimizing device, circuit, and algorithm. It also discusses new device platforms, including memristive, spintronic, phase-change, photonic, and neuromorphic complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS), and how the physics underlying these principles can be used to implement computational primitives. It is discussed further at the circuit level, e.g., in-memory computing arrays, event cameras, neuromorphic processors, and algorithms such as hardware-conscious training, spike-based neural computation, phase-based training, and stochastic inference are also discussed in these physical resources. Together, these innovations enable the development of scalable, adaptable, and energy-efficient intelligent hardware through integrated co-design of materials, electronics, and machine learning.

Keywords
Physics-driven computing
Neuromorphic circuits
Device–circuit–algorithm co-design
Memristors
Spintronics
Phase change devices
Photonic artificial intelligence
Funding
None.
Conflict of interest
Sonal Shreya is an Editorial Board Member of this journal, but was not in any way involved in the editorial and peer-review process conducted for this paper, directly or indirectly. The authors declare they have no competing interests.
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International Journal of AI for Materials and Design, Electronic ISSN: 3029-2573 Print ISSN: 3041-0746, Published by AccScience Publishing
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