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REVIEW ARTICLE

Additive manufacturing of Inconel 939: A review of microstructure, defects, and mechanical properties

Pranjal Singh1 ,  Sheeza Khan1 ,  A. Raja Annamalai2*
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1 School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
2 Centre for Innovative Manufacturing Research, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
MSAM, 026080014 https://doi.org/10.36922/MSAM026080014
Received: 17 February 2026 | Revised: 30 March 2026 | Accepted: 3 April 2026 | Published online: 19 June 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
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Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) has created new possibilities to eliminate secondary processes such as machining. By reducing material waste and shortening lead times, AM is regarded as a key enabling technology for Industry 4.0 in the global market. Among nickel-based superalloys, Inconel 939 (IN939), a precipitation-hardened alloy, is widely explored for high-temperature components operating at service temperatures of ~850 °C in demanding aerospace applications such as gas turbine blades. The pronounced cracking susceptibility of IN939 introduces processing challenges in the AM environment. Fabricating dense components requires optimized processing parameters (laser power, scan speed, hatch spacing, and layer thickness). This review addresses the influence of AM routes—specifically powder bed fusion, directed energy deposition, and electron beam melting—on the microstructure and tensile properties of IN939. The mechanical performance of IN939 is primarily determined by the alloying element composition, with microstructural studies focusing on the formation of precipitate types. Mechanistic insights are provided that correlate the thermodynamic factors (solidification pathway and driving force for precipitation) and kinetic factors (cooling rate, diffusion) governing microstructural evolution with their influence on the strength-ductility trade-off. The compiled literature sheds light on the effects of heat treatment, the formation of various defect types, and fatigue and creep behavior of IN939.

Graphical abstract
Keywords
Additive manufacturing
Laser powder bed fusion
Inconel 939
Mechanistic modeling
Funding
The authors would like to acknowledge Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, for providing support for the open-access publication of this article.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that no conflict of interest exists in this work.
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Materials Science in Additive Manufacturing, Electronic ISSN: 2810-9635 Published by AccScience Publishing
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