AccScience Publishing / IMO / Online First / DOI: 10.36922/IMO026120012
Cite this article
4
Download
120
Views
Related Info Links
More by Authors Links
Journal Browser
Volume | Year
Issue
Search
News and Announcements
View All
ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Signature patterns of vaccine adverse events

Darrell O. Ricke1*
Show Less
1 Department of Research, Molecular BioInsights, Winchester, Massachusetts , United States of America
Received: 17 March 2026 | Revised: 3 July 2026 | Accepted: 24 August 2026 | Published online: 14 September 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
Abstract

Some vaccine recipients can develop serious adverse events (SAEs) following coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) immunization. In a retrospective study of the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) menstrual AEs following immunization, statistically significant differences were observed for multiple manufacturing lots of the COVID-19 Pfizer–BioNTech and the COVID-19 Moderna vaccines.  Other candidate manufacturing contaminants associated with AEs may be detectable by comparing normalized frequency rates between predicted higher-contamination lots or vaccines and lower-contamination lots or vaccines. This retrospective study identified candidate pattern signatures for the most frequently reported AEs in VAERS for identified COVID-19 vaccine lots associated with these menstrual AEs, as well as differences in AE frequencies between three human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccines. Six candidate AE patterns (AEPs) were identified: hemorrhage (female), gynecologic including hemorrhage pattern, myopericarditis (male-biased), HPV vaccine-associated, neuropathy, and fetus patterns.  The hemorrhage pattern was identified in six vaccines, including four influenza vaccines.  The gynecologic pattern was identified in seven vaccines, including three COVID-19 and three HPV vaccines.  The myopericarditis pattern was identified in 14 vaccines, including five COVID-19 vaccines, with two bivalent COVID-19 vaccines and three smallpox vaccines. The myopericarditis pattern appears to be associated with possible contaminant microbial protein activation of immune responses and live attenuated virus vaccines.  The four AEPHPV AEs were elevated primarily among HPV vaccines. One or more of the five AEPneuropathy AEs were elevated in 11 vaccines, while one or more of the AEPfetus AEs were elevated in 11 vaccines.

Graphical abstract
Keywords
Menstruation
Menstrual cycle
Endotoxin
mRNA vaccines
COVID-19 vaccine
Human papillomavirus vaccine
Myocarditis
Pericarditis
Funding
None.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare they have no competing interests.
References
  1. Matar SG, Nourelden AZ, Assar A, et al. Effect of COVID-19 vaccine on menstrual experience among females in six Arab countries: A cross-sectional study. Influenza Other Respir Viruses. 2023;17(1):e13088. doi:10.1111/irv.13088
  2. Baena-García L, Aparicio VA, Molina-López A, Aranda P, Cámara-Roca L, Ocón-Hernández O. Premenstrual and menstrual changes reported after COVID-19 vaccination: The EVA project. Women’s Health. 2022;18:17455057221112237. doi:10.1177/17455057221112237
  3. Rastegar T, Feryduni L, Fakhraei M. COVID-19 vaccine side effects on menstrual disturbances among Iranian women. New Microbes New Infect. 2023;53:101114. doi:10.1016/j.nmni.2023.101114
  4. Dabbousi AA, El Masri J, El Ayoubi LM, Ismail O, Zreika B, Salameh P. Menstrual abnormalities post-COVID vaccination: a cross-sectional study on adult Lebanese women. Ir J Med Sci 1971 -. 2023;192(3):1163-1170. doi:10.1007/s11845-022-03089-5
  5. Lee KM, Junkins EJ, Luo C, Fatima UA, Cox ML, Clancy KB. Investigating trends in those who experience menstrual bleeding changes after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination. medRxiv. Published online 2022. doi:10.1101/2021.10.11.21264863
  6. Trogstad L, Laake I, Robertson AH, et al. Heavy bleeding and other menstrual disturbances in young women after COVID-19 vaccination. Vaccine. 2023;41(36):5271-5282. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.06.088
  7. Almomani EY, Hajjo R, Qablan A, Sabbah DA, Al-Momany A. A cross-sectional study confirms temporary post-COVID-19 vaccine menstrual irregularity and the associated physiological changes among vaccinated women in Jordan. Front Med. 2023;10. doi:10.3389/fmed.2023.1211283
  8. Duijster JW, Schoep ME, Nieboer TE, Jajou R, Kant A, van Hunsel F. Menstrual abnormalities after COVID-19 vaccination in the Netherlands: A description of spontaneous and longitudinal patient-reported data. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2023;89(10):3126-3138. doi:10.1111/bcp.15799
  9. Laganà AS, Veronesi G, Ghezzi F, et al. Evaluation of menstrual irregularities after COVID-19 vaccination: Results of the MECOVAC survey. Open Med. 2022;17(1):475-484. doi:10.1515/med-2022-0452
  10. Muhaidat N, Alshrouf MA, Azzam MI, Karam AM, Al-Nazer MW, Al-Ani A. Menstrual Symptoms After COVID-19 Vaccine: A Cross-Sectional Investigation in the MENA Region. Int J Womens Health. 2022;14:395-404. doi:10.2147/IJWH.S352167
  11. Al-Furaydi A, Alrobaish SA, Al-Sowayan N. The COVID-19 vaccines and menstrual disorders. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2023;27(3):1185-11911. doi:10.26355/eurrev_202302_31225
  12. Khan GA, Althubaiti A, Alshrif A, Alsayed Z, Jifree H. Dysmenorrhea, intermenstrual bleeding, menstrual flow volume changes, and irregularities following COVID-19 vaccination and the association with vaccine skepticism: A retrospective observational study. Women’s Health. 2023;19. doi:10.1177/17455057231210094
  13. Li K, Chen G, Hou H, et al. Analysis of sex hormones and menstruation in COVID-19 women of child-bearing age. Reprod Biomed Online. 2021;42(1):260-267. doi:10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.09.020
  14. Blix K, Laake I, Juvet L, et al. Unexpected vaginal bleeding and COVID-19 vaccination in nonmenstruating women. Sci Adv. 9(38). doi:10.1126/sciadv.adg1391
  15. Schmeling M, Manniche V, Hansen PR. Batch-dependent safety of the BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine. Eur J Clin Invest. 2023;53(8):e13998. doi:10.1111/eci.13998
  16. Manniche V, Schmeling M, Gilthorpe JD, Hansen PR. Reports of Batch-Dependent Suspected Adverse Events of the BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 Vaccine: Comparison of Results from Denmark and Sweden. Medicina. 2024;60(8):1343. doi:10.3390/medicina60081343
  17. Ricke DO. Menstrual adverse events post-COVID-19 and human papillomavirus immunization. Microbes Immun. Published online 2025. doi:10.36922/MI025310067
  18. Wastila L, Fu YH, Tung CC, Qato DM. Association Between Vaccination for Human Papillomavirus (HPV) and Autonomic Dysfunction and Menstrual Irregularities: A Self-Controlled Case Series Analysis. Drugs Real World Outcomes. 2025;12(3):467-477. doi:10.1007/s40801-025-00504-y
  19. Little DT, Ward HRG. Adolescent Premature Ovarian Insufficiency Following Human Papillomavirus Vaccination: A Case Series Seen in General Practice. J Investig Med High Impact Case Rep. 2014;2(4):4. doi:10.1177/2324709614556129
  20. Gong L, Ji HH, Tang XW, Pan LY, Chen X, Jia YT. Human papillomavirus vaccine-associated premature ovarian insufficiency and related adverse events: data mining of Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):10762. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-67668-1
  21. VAERS. Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services; 2025. Accessed June 30, 2025. https://vaers.hhs.gov/data/
  22. Ricke DO. VAERS-Tools. Published online 2022. Accessed June 30, 2025. https://github.com/doricke/VAERS-Tools
  23. Ricke DO. Vaccine-associated Kawasaki disease in children. Microbes Immun. Published online 2025. doi:10.36922/MI025200044
  24. Chi-Square Calculator for 2×2 Contingency Table. Social Science Statistics. Accessed June 30, 2025. https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/chisquare/
  25. Ochiai M, Kataoka M, Toyoizumi H, et al. Endotoxin Content in Haemophilus influenzae Type b Vaccine. Jpn J Infect Dis. 2004;57(2):58-59. doi:10.7883/yoken.JJID.2004.58
  26. Wilting FNH, Kotsopoulos AMM, Platteel ACM, van Oers JAH. Intracerebral Hemorrhage and Thrombocytopenia After AstraZeneca COVID-19 Vaccine: Clinical and Diagnostic Challenges of Vaccine-Induced Thrombotic Thrombocytopenia. Cureus. 2021;13(9):e17637. doi:10.7759/cureus.17637
  27. See I, Su JR, Lale A, et al. US Case Reports of Cerebral Venous Sinus Thrombosis With Thrombocytopenia After Ad26.COV2.S Vaccination, March 2 to April 21, 2021. JAMA. 2021;325(24):2448-2456. doi:10.1001/jama.2021.7517
  28. Greinacher A, Thiele T, Warkentin TE, Weisser K, Kyrle PA, Eichinger S. Thrombotic Thrombocytopenia after ChAdOx1 nCov-19 Vaccination. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(22):2092-2101. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2104840
  29. Muir KL, Kallam A, Koepsell SA, Gundabolu K. Thrombotic Thrombocytopenia after Ad26.COV2.S Vaccination. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(20):1964-1965. doi:10.1056/NEJMc2105869
  30. Sharma A, Upadhyay B, Banjade R, Poudel B, Luitel P, Kharel B. A Case of Diffuse Alveolar Hemorrhage With COVID-19 Vaccination. Cureus. 2022;14(1):e21665. doi:10.7759/cureus.21665
  31. Syed K, Chaudhary H, Donato A. Central Venous Sinus Thrombosis with Subarachnoid Hemorrhage Following an mRNA COVID-19 Vaccination: Are These Reports Merely Co-Incidental? Am J Case Rep. 2021;22. doi:10.12659/AJCR.933397
  32. Chen QT, Liu Y, Chen YC, et al. Case report: Vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia complicated by acute cerebral venous thrombosis and hemorrhage after AstraZeneca vaccines followed by Moderna COVID-19 vaccine booster and surgery. Front Neurol. 2022;13. doi:10.3389/fneur.2022.989730
  33. Sugasawa S, Kimura T, Bae Y, Kumasaka T, Ichi S. Two Cases of Rare Intratumoral Hemorrhage Following COVID-19 Vaccination. Cureus. 2022;14(12):e32400. doi:10.7759/cureus.32400
  34. Takeyama R, Fukuda K, Kouzaki Y, et al. Intracerebral hemorrhage due to vasculitis following COVID-19 vaccination: a case report. Acta Neurochir. 2022;164(2):543-547. doi:10.1007/s00701-021-05038-0
  35. Hulscher N, McCullough PA. Delayed Fatal Pulmonary Hemorrhage Following COVID-19 Vaccination: Case Report, Batch Analysis, And Proposed Autopsy Checklist. Preprints. Published online 2024. doi:10.20944/preprints202402.1096.v1
  36. Yangi K, Demir DD, Uzunkol A. Intracranial Hemorrhage After Pfizer-BioNTech (BNT162b2) mRNA COVID-19 Vaccination: A Case Report. Cureus. 2023;15(4):e37747. doi:10.7759/cureus.37747
  37. Bhurayanontachai R. Possible life-threatening adverse reaction to monovalent H1N1 vaccine. Crit Care. 2010;14(3):422. doi:10.1186/cc9022
  38. Zhang J, Lian Z, Xue X, et al. Does HPV vaccination during periconceptional or gestational period increase the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes?—An updated systematic review and meta-analysis based on timing of vaccination. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2024;103(10):1943-1954. doi:10.1111/aogs.14881
  39. Lipkind HS, Vazquez-Benitez G, Nordin JD, et al. Maternal and Infant Outcomes After Human Papillomavirus Vaccination in the Periconceptional Period or During Pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2017;130(3):599-608. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000002191
  40. Kharbanda EO, Vazquez-Benitez G, Lipkind HS, et al. Risk of Spontaneous Abortion After Inadvertent Human Papillomavirus Vaccination in Pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2018;132(1):35-44. doi:10.1097/aog.0000000000002694
  41. Kharbanda EO, Vazquez-Benitez G, DeSilva MB, et al. Association of Inadvertent 9-Valent Human Papillomavirus Vaccine in Pregnancy With Spontaneous Abortion and Adverse Birth Outcomes. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(4):4. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.4340
  42. Ricke DO. Cardiac adverse events post-vaccination. Brain Heart. 2025;3(2):1-15. doi:10.36922/bh.5747
  43. Montgomery J, Ryan M, Engler R, et al. Myocarditis Following Immunization With mRNA COVID-19 Vaccines in Members of the US Military. JAMA Cardiol. 2021;6(10):1202. doi:10.1001/jamacardio.2021.2833
  44. Kim HW, Jenista ER, Wendell DC, et al. Patients With Acute Myocarditis Following mRNA COVID-19 Vaccination. JAMA Cardiol. 2021;6(10):1196. doi:10.1001/jamacardio.2021.2828
  45. Marshall M, Ferguson ID, Lewis P, et al. Symptomatic Acute Myocarditis in 7 Adolescents After Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccination. Pediatrics. 2021;148(3):e2021052478. doi:10.1542/peds.2021-052478
  46. Larson KF, Ammirati E, Adler ED, et al. Myocarditis After BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273 Vaccination. Circulation. 2021;144(6):506-508. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.121.055913
  47. Rosner CM, Genovese L, Tehrani BN, et al. Myocarditis Temporally Associated With COVID-19 Vaccination. Circulation. 2021;144(6):502-505. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.121.055891
  48. Ramírez-García A, Lozano Jiménez S, Darnaude Ximénez I, Gil Cacho A, Aguado-Noya R, Segovia Cubero J. Pericarditis after administration of the BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine. Rev Espanola Cardiol Engl Ed. 2021;74(12):1120-1122. doi:10.1016/j.rec.2021.07.005
  49. Das BB, Moskowitz WB, Taylor MB, Palmer A. Myocarditis and Pericarditis Following mRNA COVID-19 Vaccination: What Do We Know So Far? Children. 2021;8(7):607. doi:10.3390/children8070607
  50. Pepe S, Gregory AT, Denniss AR. Myocarditis, Pericarditis and Cardiomyopathy After COVID-19 Vaccination. Heart Lung Circ. 2021;30(10):1425-1429. doi:10.1016/j.hlc.2021.07.011
  51. Hudson B, Mantooth R, DeLaney M. Myocarditis and pericarditis after vaccination for COVID-19. J Am Coll Emerg Physicians Open. 2021;2(4):e12498. doi:10.1002/emp2.12498
  52. Diaz G, Parsons G, Gering S, Meier A, Hutchinson I, Robicsek A. Myocarditis and Pericarditis After Vaccination for COVID-19. JAMA. 2021;326(12):1210. doi:10.1001/jama.2021.13443
  53. Lane S, Yeomans A, Shakir S. Reports of myocarditis and pericarditis following mRNA COVID-19 vaccination: a systematic review of spontaneously reported data from the UK, Europe and the USA and of the scientific literature. BMJ Open. 2022;12(5):e059223. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-059223
  54. Poddighe D, Castelli L, Marseglia GL, Bruni P. A sudden onset of a pseudo-neurological syndrome after HPV-16/18 AS04-adjuvated vaccine: might it be an autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA) presenting as a somatoform disorder? Immunol Res. 2014;60(2-3):236-246. doi:10.1007/s12026-014-8575-3
  55. Ozawa K, Hineno A, Kinoshita T, Ishihara S, Ikeda SI. Suspected Adverse Effects After Human Papillomavirus Vaccination: A Temporal Relationship Between Vaccine Administration and the Appearance of Symptoms in Japan. Drug Saf. 2017;40(12):1219-1229. doi:10.1007/s40264-017-0574-6
  56. Hineno A, Ikeda SI. A Long-Term Observation on the Possible Adverse Effects in Japanese Adolescent Girls after Human Papillomavirus Vaccination. Vaccines. 2021;9(8):856. doi:10.3390/vaccines9080856
  57. Kinoshita T, Abe RT, Hineno A, Tsunekawa K, Nakane S, Ikeda SI. Peripheral Sympathetic Nerve Dysfunction in Adolescent Japanese Girls Following Immunization with the Human Papillomavirus Vaccine. Intern Med. 2014;53(19):2185-2200. doi:10.2169/internalmedicine.53.3133
  58. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19 Vaccination for Women Who Are Pregnant or Breastfeeding. Accessed August 1, 2025. https://www.cdc.gov/covid/vaccines/pregnant-or-breastfeeding.html
  59. Geier M R, Stanbro H, Merril CR. Endotoxins in commercial vaccines. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1978;36(3):445-449. doi:10.1128/aem.36.3.445-449.1978
  60. Brito LA, Singh M. COMMENTARY: Acceptable Levels of Endotoxin in Vaccine Formulations During Preclinical Research. J Pharm Sci. 2011;100(1):34-37. doi:10.1002/jps.22267
  61. Bidne KL, Dickson MJ, Ross JW, Baumgard LH, Keating AF. Disruption of female reproductive function by endotoxins. Reproduction. 2018;155(4):R169-R181. doi:10.1530/REP-17-0406
  62. Costa JP, Jesus S, Colaço M, Duarte A, Soares E, Borges O. Endotoxin contamination of nanoparticle formulations: A concern in vaccine adjuvant mechanistic studies. Vaccine. 2023;41(23):3481-3485. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.04.063
Share
Back to top
Innovative Medicines & Omics, Electronic ISSN: 3060-8740 Print ISSN: 3060-8910, Published by AccScience Publishing