AccScience Publishing / IJPS / Online First / DOI: 10.36922/IJPS025230112
RESEARCH ARTICLE

Diplomacy, migration, and employment: The historical approach to Malaysia–Indonesia relations

Mohd Na’eim Ajis1* Nor Suzylah Sohaimi2 Mohd Ramlan Mohd Arshad3
Show Less
1 Department of Public Management, School of Government, College of Law, Government and International Studies, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Changloon, Kedah, Malaysia
2 Department of Development Management, School of Government, College of Law, Government and International Studies, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Changloon, Kedah, Malaysia
3 Faculty of Administrative Science and Public Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Seremban Campus, Malaysia
Received: 3 June 2025 | Revised: 14 September 2025 | Accepted: 21 October 2025 | Published online: 10 November 2025
© 2025 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
Abstract

Malaysia and Indonesia share long-standing diplomatic relations rooted in common historical, cultural, and linguistic ties, which have fostered cooperation in economic, political, security, educational, and sociocultural affairs. This study examines the economic dimension of these relations, focusing on labor migration. Rather than measuring changes in migration flows, it adopts a historical approach that interprets Memoranda of Understanding and irregular migration issues as instruments of migration diplomacy. Indonesia remains the largest source of migrant workers in Malaysia, helping to address labor shortages in the 3D sectors—dirty, dangerous, and difficult—while remittances contribute to Indonesia’s economy. However, disputes over Memoranda of Understanding and the persistence of irregular migration (pendatang asing tanpa izin, or illegal foreign migrant) have at times created diplomatic tensions. Despite these challenges, both governments consistently demonstrated a commitment to resolving issues through dialog and cooperation. Historical ties continue to provide a vital foundation for sustaining Malaysia–Indonesia relations and for strengthening their ability to address migration-related conflicts constructively.

Keywords
Diplomatic
Migration
Foreign workers
Malaysia
Indonesia
Funding
None.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
References

Ab Ghani, R., & Paidi, Z. (2010). Malaysia-Indonesia: The experience of the same root of the two countries’ relations In: Malaysian: Malaysia-Indonesia: Pengalaman Hubungan Dua Negara Serumpun). Prosiding Seminar on Nasional Resilience (SNAR 2010) “Political Managements and Policies in Malaysia” Institut Pemikiran Tun Mahathir, Universiti Utara Malaysia, pp.223-246.

 

Abd Razak, M.R., & Wan Azhar, W.N.S. (2021). Economic relations Malaysia-Indonesia. Jurnal Sinergi, 1:97-115.

 

Abd Razak, M.R., Harun, A.G., Hamzah, Z., & Mohamed Dali, A. (2013). Reconciliation of Malaysia-Indonesia relations in the context of Southeast Asian regionalism. Jebat Malaysian Journal of History Politics and Strategy, 40(1):177-197.

 

Abdullah, A.R.T., Esa, M.S., & Mohd Rudzainoor, H.I. (2017). (In Malaysian: Aspek perburuhan dan permodalan dalam ekonomi Melayu: Persoalan dominasi ekonomi komuniti imigran zaman permulaan kapitalisme ~ aspects of labour and capital in the Malay economy: The question of economic domination of the immigrant community in early capitalism. MANU Jurnal Pusat Penataran Ilmu dan Bahasa, 26l:123-151. https://doi.org/10.51200/manu.v26i.1065

 

Abdullah, K., editors. (2011). Malaysia in Regional International Relations. Malaysian: Malaysia Dalam Hubungan Antarabangsa Serantau, UUM Press.

 

Abella, M.I. (2013). Use of Foreign Labor to Meet Labour Shortages in Dynamic East and Southeast Asian Economics. Geneva: International Labour Organization.

 

Adamson, F., & Tsourapas, G. (2019). Migration diplomacy in world politics. International Studies Perspectives, 20(2):113-128. https://doi.org/10.1093/isp/eky015

 

Ahlborn, F. (2019). The Role(s) of Migration Diplomacy: The Concept of Migration Diplomacy from a Role Theory Perspective and the Case of Morocco’s “Migration Roles”. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

 

Ahmad, R., Ajis, M.N., & Awang, S. (2014). The Problem of Illegal Immigrants in Malaysia from a Social and Legal Perspective. (In Malaysian: Permasalahan pendatang asing tanpa izin di Malaysia dari aspek sosial dan perundangan). Kanun Jurnal Undang Undang Malaysia, 26(2):173-191.

 

Ajis, M.N. (2015). The Making and Administering Foreign Worker Policies in Malaysia. (In Malaysian: Pembuatan dan Pentadbiran Dasar Pekerja Asing di Malaysia). (Doctoral Dissertation, Universiti Sains Malaysia).

 

Ajis, M.N., Keling, M.F., Othman, Z., & Shuib, M.S. (2014). The dilemma of managing foreign workers in Malaysia: Opportunities and challenges. Global Journal of Human Social Science Political Science, 14(4):43-53.

 

Ajis, M.N., Keling, M.F., Shuib, MS., & Mokhtar, M. (2009). The implication of foreign workers on national security: A Malaysian experince. The International Journal of Multidiscplinary Social Sciences, 4(1):313-326. https://doi.org/10.18848/1833-1882/CGP/v04i01/52805

 

Ajis, M.N., Saludin, M.N., Ismail, A., Von Feigenblatt, O.F., Shuib, M.S., & Keling, M.F. (2010). Managing Foreign workers in Southeast Asian Countries. Journal of Asia Pacific Studies, 1(3):481-505.

 

Alhadjri, A. (2024). Citizen Protection, the Border Issue is the Focus of Indonesian Diplomacy. In Malaysian: Perlindungan Warga, isu Sempadan Fokus Diplomasi Indonesia). Malaysiakini. Available from: https://www.malaysiakini. com/news/692525

 

Ali, N.B.M. (1997). The migration of Indonesian migrant to Malaysia. A review from an economic and socio-cultural perspective. (In: Malaysian: Penghijrahan Pendatang Indonesia ke Malaysia. Satu Tinjauan Dari Perspektif Ekonomi Dan Sosio-Budaya). (Doctoral Dissertation, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak).

 

Asgar, B. (2012). The Regulatory Issues and Implementation Problems in Sending Indonesian Labor to Malaysia: An Indonesian Perspective (2002-2011). In: Malaysian: Isu Regulasi dan Masalah Pelaksanaan Dalam Pengiriman Tenaga Kerja Indonesia ke Malaysia: Perspektif Indonesia (2002-2011)). (Doctoral Dissertation, Universiti Utara Malaysia).

 

Asis, M.M.B. (2004). Borders, globalization and migration: The state of mobility in Asia. In: Ananta, A., & Arifin, E.N., editors. International Migration in Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS), p.26-47.

 

Athukorala, P.C., & Devadason, E.S. (2011). The Impact of Foreign Labour on Host Country Wages: The Experience of a Southern Host, Malaysia. Crawford School of Economics and Government, Australian National University, [Working Paper 2011/03]. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1910371

 

Avila, M.B. (2015). The Evolution of Malaysia’s Immigration Policy Since 1970 (Doctoral Dissertation, Monterey, California: Naval Postgraduate School). Available from: https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/html/tr/ada620596/index.html

 

Ayu, T. (2025). The Protesters Pelt Malaysian Embassy with Eggs Over Shooting of Indonesian Migrant Worker. (In Indonesian: Demostran Lempari Kedutaan Malaysia Dengan Telur Terkait Penembakan Pekerja Migran Indonesia). Kompas. Available from: https://www.kompas. tv/nasional/570546/demonstran-lempari-kedutaan-malaysia-dengan-telur-terkait-penembakan-pekerja-migran-indonesia

 

Azed, A.B. (2014). The Entry of Indonesian Workers into Malaysia During the Government of Tun Dr. Mahathir bin Mohamad and Present. (In Malaysian: Kemasukan Tenaga Kerja Indonesia ke Malaysia Semasa Pemerintahan Tun Dr. Mahathir bin Mohamad dan Kini). (Doctoral Dissertation, Universiti Utara Malaysia).

 

Aziz, A.N.A., & Saad, S. (2022). The factors of industry dependence on Foreign workers in Malaysia. Faktor Kebergantungan Industri Terhadap Pekerja Asing di Malaysia. e-BANGI, 19(7):263-276. https://doi.org/10.17576/ebangi.2022.1907.20

 

Balakrishnan, B. (2013). Circular Migration of Indonesian Low-Skilled Labour Migrants to Peninsular Malaysia: Patterns, Causes and Consequences. (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Adelaide, School of Social Sciences).

 

Berita Harian. (2025). Kes Tembak di Perairan Pantai Morib: Indonesia Gesa Ambil Tindakan (Shooting Case in Morib Coast Waters: Indonesia Urges Action). Berita Harian. Available from: https://www.bharian.com.my/berita/ kes/2025/01/1354400/kes-tembak-di-perairan-pantai-morib-indonesia-gesa-ambil-tindakan-jika

 

BERNAMA. (2023). 800 Pekerja Domestik Indonesia Tiba di Malaysia (800 Indonesian Domestic Workers Arrive in Malaysia), Bernama. Available from: https://bernama.com/ bm/news.php?id=2175787

 

Brettner-Litherland, I. (2016). Foreign Domestic Workers in Malaysia: A Comparative Study of the Situation of Migrant Domestic Workers from Cambodia, Indonesia and the Philippines (Master thesis, Universitat Wien).

 

Cornelius, W., & Tsuda, T. (2004). Controlling immigration: The limits of government intervention. In: Cornelius, W., Tsuda, T., Martin, P., & Hollifield, J. editors. Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective. 2nd ed. California: Stanford University Press, p3-48.

 

Crouch, H. (1993). Malaysia: Neither authoritarian nor democratic. In: Hewison, K., Robison, R., & Rodan, F., editors. Southeast Asia in the 1990s: Authoritarianism, Democracy and Capitalism. St. Leonards: Allen and Unwin, p.135-158.

 

Devadason, E.S., & Meng, C.W. (2014). Policies and laws regulating migrant workers in Malaysia: A critical appraisal. Journal of Contemporary Asia, 44(1):19-35. https://doi.org/10.1080/00472336.2013.826420

 

Esa, M.S., Othman, I.W., Sharif, S.D., & Abdul Hamid, J. (2022). Revealing the early history of the new economic policy: A driver for the nation’s sustainability efforts. Menyingkap sejarah awal dasar ekonomi baru: Pemacu kepada usaha kelestarian negara bangsa). Journal of Islamic Social Economics and Development (JISED), 7(47):338-349. https://doi.org/10.55573/JISED.074732

 

Fauziyah, M. (2015). Indonesian Diplomacy towards Malaysia on Indonesian Migrant Workers Faced Death Penalty 2010-2013. (Undergraduate Thesis, State Islamic University Sharif Hidayatullah, Jakarta). Available from: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/indonesian/diplomacy/towards/malaysia/on/Indonesianfauziyah/b71eb01a0d7caeec7bd70d3772861d59fccc4d15

 

Go, S.P. (2007). Asian Labor Migration: The Role of Bilateral Labor and Similar Agreements. In: Paper Presented in Regional Informal Workshop on Labor Migration in Southeast Asia: What Role for Parliaments, Manila.

 

Hadi, S. (2008). Securitization and efforts to increase protection for Indonesian migrant workers in Malaysia. Indonesian Journal of International Law, 5(4):5.

 

Handayani, D.W., Hadiawan, A., & Dwijono, A.T. (2015). Dynamics of Indonesian and Malaysian cooperation on workforce placement and protection. Dinamika kerjasama indonesia dan malaysia tentang penempatan dan perlindungan tenaga kerja). SOSIOLOGI Jurnal Ilmiah Kajian Ilmu Sosial dan Budaya, 17(1):31-41. https://doi.org/10.23960/sosiologi.v17i1.85

 

Handayani, P. (2014). Indonesia’s bilateral agreement with Malaysia on Indonesian workers (TKI). Perjanjian bilateral indonesiadengan malaysia terhadap tenaga kerja Indonesia (TKI)). Lex Jurnalica, 11(1):30-35. https://doi.org/10.47007/lj.v11i1.387

 

Haris, S.M., Mohd Shazali, N., Abu Hassan, N.N., Badaruddina, S., Che Sohb, M., & Othman, M.N. (2015). The perspectives on Malaysia-Indonesia relations: A survey among Indonesian youth leadership. Perspektif hubungan Malaysia-Indonesia: Satu tinjauan dalam kalangan kepimpinan belia Indonesia). Journal of Administrative Science, 12(2):1-17.

 

Harun, R. (2006). The cooperation and conflict in Malaysia-Indonesia relations. Kerjasama dan konflik dalam hubungan Malaysia-Indonesia). In: Harun, R., editor, Malaysia’s Foreign Relations. Issues and challenges. Malaya: UM Press, p.45

 

Harun, R. (2009). Improving mutual security through bilateral cooperation between Malaysia and neighboring countries. Peningkatan Keselamatan Bersama Melalui Kerjasama Duahala Malaysia dan Negara-Negara Jiran). JEBAT Malaysian Journal of History Politics Strategic Studies, 36:16-40. https://doi.org/10.17576/sinergi.0101.2021.06

 

Hugo, G. (1993). Indonesian labor migration to Malaysia: Trends and policy implications. Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science, 21(1):36-72.

 

Hugo, G. (1995). International labour migration and the family: Some observation from Indonesia. Asian Pacific Migration Journal, 4(2):273-301. https://doi.org/10.1177/011719689500400206

 

Idris, N.A., & Yussof, I. (2009). Malaysia’s economy towards balanced development. In: Ekonomi Malaysia ke Arah Pembangunan Seimbang. Bangi: UKM Press.

 

Irdayanti. (2013). Strengthening Indonesia-Malaysia cooperation relations in dealing with transnational crime. Journal of Transnational International Relations Science, 5(1):916.

 

Iruthayaraj, P., & Pappusamy, D. (2014). Migrant Workers Contribution Towards the Malaysian Economic Transformation. In: Asian Conference on Globalization and Labor Administration: Cross-Border Labour Mobility, Social Security and Regional Integration, November 19-21, 2014, Manila, Philippines.

 

Ismail, A., & Govindasamy, G. (2019). Malaysia’s legal claims and approach in the cases of Ligitan Island, Sipadan Island and Pedra Branca. Tuntutan undang-undang dan pendekatan Malaysia di dalam kes pulau ligitan, pulau sipadan dan Pedra Branca). Akademika, 89(1):83-95. https://doi.org/10.17576/akad-2019-8901-07

 

Jizal, M., Ismail, R., & Yussof, I. (2015). The Determinants of Unauthorized Migration of Indonesian Labor in Malaysia. Penentu Migrasi Tanpa Izin Tenaga Kerja Indonesia Di Malaysia). Prosiding Persidangan Kebangsaan Ekonomi Malaysia ke-10 (PERKIM).

 

Kanapathy, V. (2001). International migration and labor market adjustments in Malaysia: The role of foreign labor management policies. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, 10(3-4):429-461. https://doi.org/10.1177/011719680101000305

 

Kanapathy, V. (2006). Towards and East Asian cooperation framework for migrant labour. In: Workshop on an East Asian Cooperation Framework for Migrant Labour. Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur.

 

Kanfur, M.G., & Mustafa, R. (1998). Japanese Experience in Handing Migrant Worker: Lesson for Malaysia. Conference on Migrant Workers and the Malaysian Economy. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

 

Karim, A.Z., Abdullah, M.A., & Bakar, M.I.H. (1999). Foreign Workers in Malaysia: Issues and Implications. Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publications and Distributors Sdn. Bhd.

 

Kassim, A. (1987). The unwelcome guests: Indonesian immigrants and Malaysian public responses. Japanese Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 25(2):265-278. https://doi.org/10.20495/tak.25.2_265

 

Kassim, A. (1997). Illegal alien labour in Malaysia: Its influx, utilization, and ramifications. Indonesia and the Malay World, 25(71):50-81. https://doi.org/10.1080/13639819708729889

 

Kassim, A. (2012). Foreign Worker Policy in Malaysia: The Need for a Paradigm Shift. Dasar Pekerja Asing di Malaysia: Perlunya Anjakan Paradigm). Malaysia: Penerbit Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

 

Kassim, A. (2014). Foreign workers in Malaysia in the post-independence era: Race paradigm in state policy academic writings and public discourse. In: Milner, A., Embong, A.R., & Yean, T.S., editors. Transforming Malaysia: Dominant and Competing Paradigms. Singapore: ISEAS- Yusof Ishak Institute, p.143-177.

 

Khor, N., & Mitra, D. (2013). Trade and Employment in Asia. London: Routledge.

 

Lim, L.L. (1981). Labour Shortages in the Rural Agricultural Sector: A Search for Explanations and Solutions (Population Studies Unit Discussion Paper No. 1). International Labour Organization.

 

Lim, L.L. (1996). The migration transition in Malaysia. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, 5(2-3):319-337. https://doi.org/10.1177/011719689600500209

 

Liow, J.C. (2004). The Politics of Indonesia-Malaysia Relations: One Kin, Two Nations. London: Routledge.

 

Maksum, A. (2021). The boundary overlap issues and Indonesia- Malaysia relations during the Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono administration. Isu pertindihan wilayah dan hubungan Indonesia-Malaysia pada era pentadbiran Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono. SEJARAH Journal of the Department of History, 30(2):153-167. https://doi.org/10.22452/sejarah.vol30no2.9

 

Malahayati, M. (2015). Legal protection on Indonesian domestic workers in Malaysia: From actors’ view. Journal of Law Policy and Globalization, 43:75-85.

 

Mei, L. (2006). A study on Indonesian migrant workers in Malaysia. In: Sandhu, K.S., & Chen, A.J., editors. China and Malaysia in a Globalizing World. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, p.177-199.

 

Mohamed, I.S. (2025). Foreigner’s Boat Shot after Hitting, Attacking MMEA. (In Malaysian: Bot Warga Asing Ditembak Selepas Langgar, Serang APMM). Kosmo. Available from: https://www.kosmo.com.my/2025/01/25/bot-warga-asing-ditembak-selepas-langgar-serang-apmm

 

Muhamad Lokman, K. (2025). MMEA Shooting Incident: Anwar Assures Transparent Investigation, won’t Protect Any Party. Insiden Tembak APMM: Anwar Beri Jaminan Siasatan Telus, Tak Lindungi Mana-Mana Pihak). Berita Harian. Available from: https://www.bharian.com.my/berita/ kes/2025/01/1355892

 

Muhammad, S.J.N. (2014). The gift package that sparked the continuation of diplomatic relations during the Malay sultanate era. Bingkisan hadiah pencetus keberlangsungan hubungan diplomatik pada zaman kesultanan Melayu). Jurnal Antarabangsa Alam dan Tamadun Melayu (Iman), 2(2):91-103.

 

Muniandy, K. (1996). Malaysia-Indonesia Relations 1957-1970. Hubungan Malaysia Indonesia, 1957-1970). Bahasa: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

 

Nik Mahmud, N.A. (2000). Malaysia-Indonesia Confrontation. Konfrontasi Malaysia-Indonesia). Bangi: Penerbit Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

 

Othman, N.A. (1986). The arrival of Indonesian ethnic groups to Malaya and their adaptation into Malay society and culture. Kedatangan kelompok-kelompok etnik Indonesia ke Tanah Melayu dan Penyesuaian mereka ke dalam masyarakat dan budaya melayu). Sari: Jurnal Alam dan Tamadun Melayu, 4(2):83-95.

 

Othman, S.A., & Rahim, R.A. (2014). Migrant workers in Malaysia: Protection of employers. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 22(S):271-282.

 

Prianto, A.L., Amri, A.R., & Dan Ajis, M.N. (2023). Governance and protection of Indonesian migrant workers in Malaysia: A study on policy and innovation network. Journal of Southeast Asian Human Rights, 7(2):214-249. https://doi.org/10.19184/jseahr.v7i2.44185

 

Rahayu, D., & Ramdlany, A.A. (2016). Responsibility of protection Indonesian female migrant workers. International Journal of Business Economics and Law, 10(4):11-20.

 

Rani, F. (2012). The role of bureaucracy in the placement of Indonesian workers (TKI) Abroad. Peranan birokrasi dalam penempatan tenaga kerja Indonesia (TKI) di luar negeri). Nakhoda: Jurnal Ilmu Pemerintahan, 11(17). https://doi.org/10.35967/jipn.v11i1.1612

 

Rashid, T.A., Yusof, F., Jailani, A.I., & Aziz, T.N.R.A. (2018). The principles of understanding between Malaysia and Indonesia in protecting foreign workers. Dasar-dasar persefahaman Malaysia dan Indonesia dalam melindungi tenaga kerja asing). Journal of Law and Governance, 1(1), 91-100.

 

Robertson, P.S. (2009). Migrant Workers in Malaysia-Issues, Concerns and Points for Action. United Nation: Fair Labor Association (FLA).

 

Said, F., Zakaria, R.H., & Said, S.M. (2002). The determinants of trade union membership growth in Malaysia. International Journal of Economics Management and Accounting, 10(2):111-128. https://doi.org/10.31436/ijema.v10i2.80

 

Sayed Mahadi, S.A.K. (2014). Indonesia labour migration to Sabah: Trends, impacts and changes (Doctoral dissertation, Doctoral dissertation, School of Social Sciences, Adelaide University, Adelaide, Australia).

 

Sayed Mahadi, S.A.R., & Osman, S. (2020). Issues and Challenges of Indonesian Migration to Malaysia. Isu dan Cabaran Migrasi Indonesia ke Malaysia. California: UM Press.

 

Stahl, C.W. (1984a). International Labour Market, Migration and the ASEAN Economies (ILO Working Paper on International Migration for Employment). Geneva: International Labour Organization.

 

Stahl, C.W. (1984b). Singapore’s foreign workforce: Some reflections on its benefits and costs. International Migration Review, 18(1):37-49. https://doi.org/10.2307/2546001

 

Sulistiyono, S.T. (2016). Maritime paradigm in developing Indonesia: Learning from history. Paradigma Maritim dalam membangun Indonesia: Belajar dari sejarah). Lembaran Sejarah, 2(12):81-108. https://doi.org/10.22146/lembaran-sejarah.33461

 

Sunarti, L. (2014). Malaysia’s Foreign policy towards Indonesia, 1957-1976: From confrontation to cooperation. Politik luar negeri Malaysia terhadap Indonesia, 1957-1976: Dari konfrontasi menuju kerjasama). Susurgalur, 2(1):65-80.

 

Tolay, J. (2022). Interrogating and broadening the emerging narrative on migration diplomacy: A critical assessment. Millenium Journal of International Studies, 51(1):354-375. https://doi.org/10.1177/03058298221139589

 

United Nations. (2013). International migration trends and policies in the Asia-Pacific region. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific.

 

Weiner, M. (1985). On international migration and international relations. Population and Development Review, 11(3):441-455. https://doi.org/10.2307/1973247

 

Wihtol de Wenden, C. (2023). Migration Diplomacy and Multi-Actor Governance. In: Migration and International Relations. IMISCOE Research Series, p.59-72. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31716-3_5

 

Wong, L. (1988). A Political Economy of Malaysia. Conference on Racialism in Post-Colonial Societies, Sydney, Australia.

 

World Bank Report. (1995). Malaysia: Meeting Labour Needs: More Workers and Better Skills. United States: World Bank.

 

Yaakub, A.N. (2009). Malaysia and Indonesia: A Study of Foreign Policies with Special Reference to Bilaterial Relations. Australia: University of Western Australia.

 

Zin, O. (2022). Malaysia Indonesia signs MoU for maids (In Malaysian: Malaysia Indonesia meterai MoU pembantu rumah). Utusan Malaysia. Available from: https://www. utusan.com.my/nasional/2022/04/malaysia-indonesia-meterai-mou-pdi/

Share
Back to top
International Journal of Population Studies, Electronic ISSN: 2424-8606 Print ISSN: 2424-8150, Published by AccScience Publishing