Tree-based intervention typologies and improvements in refugee displacement regions
Concern about deforestation in contexts of refugee displacement is substantial. Tree-based interventions (TBIs) are efforts to plant trees, conserve trees, and/or facilitate tree regrowth. TBIs are implemented by non-governmental organizations in refugee displacement contexts to address landscape-level deforestation, soil erosion, and biodiversity loss while providing livelihood opportunities to participants. Although humanitarian stakeholders recommend TBIs in refugee-hosting regions, the diversity of TBI models and associated strengths and weaknesses are not well understood. This research focuses on five TBIs implemented in a northwest Uganda refugee settlement that include large-acre woodlot planting, household-level planting of trees yielding short-term products, and conservation site establishment to protect indigenous tree species. Interviews and focus-group discussions with TBI staff revealed that each intervention makes trade-offs in navigating five key challenges associated with TBI implementation in a refugee context: Obtaining access to land, providing short-term livelihood benefits to participants, gaining equitable involvement by gender, achieving environmental conservation goals, and successfully engaging community members. Significant differences were found between the strategies of TBIs implemented at home sites when compared to TBIs implemented at community sites. While TBIs implemented at home sites are intended to provide participants long-term access to tree products with clear user rights and enable women to grow trees alongside ongoing domestic activities, TBIs implemented at community sites can achieve large-scale environmental goals and provide cash-based employment opportunities to participants. An applied integrated landscape approach is recommended to maximize inter-program collaboration and collective benefits across programs, while realizing sustainable TBI impacts within complex socioecological refugee displacement contexts.
Adam-Bradford, A. (2016). Agroforestry for refugee camps. Agriculture for Development, 28(5):1-3.
Andreetti, C.C., Benato, D., Brumat, E., Burns, D.C., Coloni, F., Gianvenuti, A., et al. (2024). Sustainable Forest Management as Means to Enhance Self-Reliance and Promote Climate Resilience in Displacement Contexts. Food and Agriculture Organization and United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Available from: https://data.unhcr.org/en/ documents/details/113161 [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 05].
Barasa, B., Turyabanawe, L., Akello, G., Gudoyi, P.M., Nabatta, C., & Mulabbi, A. (2022). The energy potential of harvested wood fuel by refugees in northern Uganda. The Scientific World Journal, 2022(1):1569960. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/1569960
Beltramo, T., Calvi, R., Giacomo, D.G., & Ibrahima, S. (2023). Child poverty among refugees. World Development, 171:106340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2023.106340
Bernard, B., Aron, M., Loy, T., Muhamud, N.W., & Benard, S. (2022). The impact of refugee settlements on land use changes and vegetation degradation in West Nile Sub-region, Uganda. Geocarto International, 37(1):16-34. https://doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2019.1704073
Betts, A. (2021). Refugees and patronage: A political history of Uganda’s ‘progressive’ refugee policies. African Affairs, 120(479):243-276. https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adab012
Black, R. (1994). Forced migration and environmental change: The impact of refugees on host environments. Journal of Environmental Management, 42(3):261-277.
Blair, C.W., Grossman, G., & Weinstein, J.M. (2022). Liberal displacement policies attract forced migrants in the global South. American Political Science Review, 116(1):351-358. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055421000848
Bohnet, H., & Schmitz-Pranghe, C. (2019). Uganda: A Role Model for Refugee Integration? [Working Paper]. Bonn International Center for Conversion (BICC). Available from: https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/62871 [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 05].
Braun, A., Lang, S., & Hochschild, V. (2016). Impact of refugee camps on their environment: A case study using multi-temporal SAR data. Journal of Geography Environment and Earth Science International, 4(2):1-17. https://doi.org/10.9734/JGEESI/2016/22392
Caux, H. (2007). “UNHCR Backs Environment Plan with Pledge to Plant 9 Million Trees.” United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Available from: Available from: https://www.unhcr.org/news/unhcr-backs-environment-plan-pledge-plant-9-million-trees [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 05].
Dryden-Peterson, S., & Hovil, L. (2004). A remaining hope for durable solutions: Local integration of refugees and their hosts in the case of Uganda. Refuge Canada’s Journal on Refugees, 22(1):26-38. https://doi.org/10.25071/1920-7336.21315
Duguma, L., Clement, O., Cathy, W., Judith, N., Phillip, K., Peter, M., et al. (2019). Restoring Natural Capital Through Tree-Based Interventions to Reduce Social Tensions in Humanitarian Contexts. Center for International Forestry Research and World Agroforestry (CIFOR-ICRAF). Available from: https://www.cifor-icraf.org/publications/downloads/Publications/PDFS/ PO19047.pdf [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 05].
Duncan, J.M.A., Boruff, B., Biggs, E.M., Haworth, B.T., Wales, N., & Bruce, E. (2021). Do integrated landscape approaches moderate climate impacts on livelihoods? A review of the evidence from agricultural landscapes. Regional Environmental Change, 21(1):25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01754-6
European Union. (2022). Guidance on the Operationalization of the Minimum Environmental Requirements and Recommendations for EU-Funded Humanitarian Aid Operations. Publications Office. Available from: https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2795/467817 [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 05].
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). (2023). Forest Landscape Management Plan for the Bidibidi Refugee Settlement, Yumbe District, Uganda: 2023-2028. United Nations: FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc6197en
Freeman, O.E., Duguma, L.A., & Minang, P.A. (2015). Operationalizing the integrated landscape approach in practice. Ecology and Society, 20(1):art24. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-07175-200124
Gianvenuti, A., Bedijo, N.G., Jalal, R., Hitimana, L., Walter, S., Linhares-Juvenal, T., et al. (2022). Woodfuel consumption in refugee hosting areas and its impact on the surrounding forests-the case of Uganda. Forests, 13(10):1676. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13101676
Gibbs, G. (2007). Analyzing Qualitative Data. London: SAGE Publications, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781849208574
Gidron, Y. (2022). Borderland Dynamics between Uganda and South Sudan. Rift Valley Institute. Available from: https://www.socialscienceinaction.org/resources/mobile/ livelihoods/borderland/dynamics/between-uganda-and-south-sudan [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 05].
Goodrick, D. (2014). Comparative Case Studies, Methodological Briefs: Impact Evaluation 9. Florence: United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Office of Research.
Government of Uganda and United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2025). Uganda-Refugee Statistics September 2025. Available from: https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/ details/118930 [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 05].
Grosrenaud, E., Okia, C.A., Adam-Bradford, A., & Trenchard, L. (2021). Agroforestry: Challenges and opportunities in Rhino Camp and Imvepi refugee settlements of Arua district, Northern Uganda. Sustainability, 13(4):2134. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13042134
Hagenlocher, M., Lang, S., & Tiede, D. (2012). Integrated assessment of the environmental impact of an IDP camp in Sudan based on very high resolution multi-temporal satellite imagery. Remote Sensing of Environment, 126:27-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2012.08.010
Hassan, M.M., Smith, A.C., Walker, K., Rahman, M.K., & Southworth, J. (2018). Rohingya refugee crisis and forest cover change in Teknaf, Bangladesh. Remote Sensing, 10(5):689. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10050689
Hemida, M., Yasin, E.H.E., Kheiry, M.A., Hammad, Z.M., & Vityi, A. (2023). Assessment of Taungya agroforestry system in dryland forests rehabilitation in Sudan. Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management, 10(3):4495. https://doi.org/10.15243/jdmlm.2023.103.4495
Hyde-Smith, L., & Nyakana, M. (2021). SFD Report Terego district, Uganda, 2021. Available from: https://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-4400-7-1630506112. pdf [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 05].
Kaiser, T. (2005). Participating in development? Refugee protection, politics and developmental approaches to refugee management in Uganda. Third World Quarterly, 26(2):351-367. https://doi.org/10.1080/0143659042000339155
Kakonge, J.O. (2000). A review of refugee environmental-oriented projects in Africa: A case for environmental impact assessment. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 18(1):23-32. https://doi.org/10.3152/147154600781767565
Kay, S., Duguma, L.A., & Okia, C.A. (2021). The potentials of technology complementarity to address energy poverty in refugee hosting landscapes in Uganda. Energy Ecology and Environment, 6(5):395-407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40974-020-00204-z
Kirabo, A., Byakagaba, P., Buyinza, M., & Namaalwa, J. (2011). Agroforestry as a land conflict management strategy in Western Uganda. Environmental Research Journal, 5(1):18-24. https://doi.org/10.3923/erj.2011.18.24
Kumssa, A., Williams, J.H., Jones, J.F., & Des Marais, E.A. (2014). Conflict and migration: The case of Somali refugees in northeastern Kenya. Global Social Welfare, 1(4):145-156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40609-014-0006-9
Laird, S., Awono, A., Okia, C., Anaya, G.A., Ingram, V., Phosiso, S., et al. (2021). Social and Environmental Transformation of Refugee and Hosting Community Landscapes in Central and Eastern Africa. Indonesia: Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). https://doi.org/10.17528/cifor/008420
Lambert, S.D., & Loiselle, C.G. (2008). Combining individual interviews and focus groups to enhance data richness. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 62(2):228-237. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04559.x
Lehne, J., Blyth, W., Lahn, G., Bazilian, M., & Grafham, O. (2016). Energy services for refugees and displaced people. Energy Strategy Reviews, 13-14:134-146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esr.2016.08.008
Leiterer, R., Bloesch, U., Wulf, H., Eugster, S., & Joerg, P.C. (2018). Vegetation monitoring in refugee-hosting areas in South Sudan. Applied Geography, 93:1-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2018.01.013
Malik, S. (2023). “Unlocking the Economic Gains of Hosting Refugees Starts with Economic Inclusion.” United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Blogs. Available from: https://www.unhcr.org/blogs/unlocking-the-economic-gains-of-hosting-refugees-starts-with-economic-inclusion/ [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 05].
Masters, E.T. (2021). Traditional food plants of the upper Aswa River catchment of Northern Uganda-a cultural crossroads. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 17(1):24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-021-00441-4
Maystadt, J.F., Mueller, V., Van Den Hoek, J., & Van Weezel, S. (2020). Vegetation changes attributable to refugees in Africa coincide with agricultural deforestation. Environmental Research Letters, 15(4):044008. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab6d7c
Mendum, R., & Njenga, M. (2018). Integrating wood fuels into agriculture and food security agendas and research in Sub- Saharan Africa. FACETS, 3(1):1-11. https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2017-0032
Moore, E.A., Munsell, J.F., Hammett, A.L.T., & Moore, K.M. (2014). Agroforestry preferences in refugee-hosting communities in Cameroon. Agroforestry Systems, 88(4):735-752. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-014-9695-4
Naughton-Treves, L., Kammen, D.M., & Chapman, C. (2007). Burning biodiversity: Woody biomass use by commercial and subsistence groups in western Uganda’s forests. Biological Conservation, 134(2):232-241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2006.08.020
Nardi, M.A., & Runnström, M. (2024). Environmental change in conflict and post-conflict northern Uganda: A geographical analysis to understand prospects for sustainable peace and development in the region. The Journal of Environment and Development, 33(4):698-729. https://doi.org/10.1177/10704965241258082
Nduwamungu, J., & Munyanziza, H. (2013). Agroforestry practice in villages surrounding Nyamure former refugee camp, Nyanza District: Tree species and purpose. Rwanda Journal, 28(1):64-75. https://doi.org/10.4314/rj.v28i1.5
Orr, B. (1985). Refugee forestry in Somalia. The Rural Sociologist, 5(4):267-272.
Rashid, K.J., Hoque, M.A., Esha, T.A., Rahman, M.A., & Paul, A. (2021). Spatiotemporal changes of vegetation and land surface temperature in the refugee camps and its surrounding areas of Bangladesh after the Rohingya influx from Myanmar. Environment Development and Sustainability, 23(3):3562-3577. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-00733-x
Reed, J., Van Vianen, J., Barlow, J., & Sunderland, T. (2017). Have integrated landscape approaches reconciled societal and environmental issues in the tropics? Land Use Policy, 63:481-492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.02.021
Reed, J., Van Vianen, J., Deakin, E.L., Barlow, J., & Sunderland, T. (2016). Integrated landscape approaches to managing social and environmental issues in the tropics: Learning from the past to guide the future. Global Change Biology, 22:2540-2554. https://doi.org/doi: 10.1111/gcb.13284
Reij, C., & Garrity, D. (2016). Scaling up farmer‐managed natural regeneration in Africa to restore degraded landscapes. BIOTROPICA, 48(6):834-843. https://doi.org/10.1111/btp.12390
Rinaudo, T., Muller, A., & Morris, M. (2019). Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) Manual. World Vision. Available from: https://www.wvi.org/publications/field-guide/emergencies/farmer-managed-natural-regeneration-manual [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 05].
Sarkar, S.K., Saroar, M., & Chakraborty, T. (2023). Navigating nature’s toll: Assessing the ecological impact of the refugee crisis in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh. Heliyon, 9(7):e18255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18255
Savaya, R., & Waysman, M. (2005). The logic model: A tool for incorporating theory in development and evaluation of programs. Administration in Social Work, 29(2):85-103. https://doi.org/10.1300/J147v29n02_06
Schure, J., Gambo, J., Sola, P., Awono, A., Buyinza, J., & Ndzodo, A. (2022). Framework Landscape Approach in Displacement Contexts: Review and Concept. CIFOR-ICRAF. Available from: https://www.cifor-icraf.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/GLADS_Review-and-concept.pdf [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 05].
Swain, J. (2018). A Hybrid Approach to Thematic Analysis in Qualitative Research: Using A Practical Example. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781526435477
Titeca, K. (2022). Who depends on whom? Uganda’s refugee ‘success story’, corruption and the international community. Third World Quarterly, 43(1):55-73. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2021.1989301
Tomkins, M., Yousef, S., Adam-Bradford, A., Perkins, C., Grosrenaud, E., Mctough, M., et al. (2019). Cultivating refuge: The role of urban agriculture amongst refugees and forced migrants in the kurdistan region of Iraq. International Journal of Design and Nature and Ecodynamics, 14(2):103-118. https://doi.org/10.2495/DNE-V14-N2-103-118
Ullal, A., & Manoli, G. (2024). Nature-Based Solutions in Humanitarian Settlements-Guidelines for Integrating Nature-Based Solutions in Settlement Planning. UNHCR. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Available from: https://www.acnur.org/co/sites/default/ files/ 2024-05/nature-based-solutions-humanitarian-settlements-guidelines-integrating-nbs-in-settlement-planning.pdf [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 05].
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2002). Cooking Options in Refugee Situations: A Handbook of Experiences in Energy Conservation and Alternative Fuels. Available from: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/692888?v=pdf [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 05].
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2025a). Refuge Hosting Metrics. Available from: https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics/insights/explainers/refugee-hosting-metrics.html [Last accessed on 2025 May 06].
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2025b). Refuge Data Finder. Available from: https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics/data-summaries?data_summaries%5bregion [Last accessed on 2025 May 06].
Unruh, J.D. (1993). Refugee resettlement on the horn of Africa. Land Use Policy, 10(1):49-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/0264-8377(93)90030-E
Van Breugel, P., Kindt, R., Lillesø, J.P.B., Kalema, J., Mulumba, J., Namaganda, M., et al. (2014). Potential Natural Vegetation of Eastern Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia). Vol. 11. Denmark: Department of Geoscience and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen.
Watson, C. (2025). Tree-Based Solutions in the Refugee-Hosting Landscapes of Northwestern Uganda 2017 to 2025: A Case Study and Guidance. Center for International Forestry Research and World Agroforestry (CIFOR-ICRAF). Available from: https://www.cifor-icraf.org/knowledge/ publication/43024/ [Last accessed on 2025 Nov 05].
Wel, P.Y. (2012). The Potential of Agroforestry for Peacebuilding the Case of Jonglei, South Sudan. Guelph: The University of Guelph.