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RESEARCH ARTICLE

Dynamic modeling and optimal control of bank balance sheets under capital adequacy constraints

Moch. Fandi Ansori*
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1 Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Universitas Diponegoro, Semarang, Indonesia
IJOCTA, 025250113 https://doi.org/10.36922/IJOCTA025250113
Received: 17 June 2025 | Revised: 16 September 2025 | Accepted: 29 September 2025 | Published online: 31 October 2025
© 2025 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution -Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC-by the license) ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ )
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Abstract

The aim of this study is to examine the dynamics of deposits, loans, and equity on the balance sheet of the bank under capital adequacy constraints. The intention is to provide a tractable framework for assessing solvency and regulatory policies. Therefore, a nonlinear continuous-time model was developed with logistic growth, credit risk, and capital adequacy conditions. The model was calibrated using monthly data for Indonesian commercial banks from 2022 to 2024, and the parameters were estimated using particle swarm optimization. The results showed that the model replicates observed trajectories with mean absolute percentage errors below 2.1% to confirm its empirical validity. The simulations showed that stricter capital requirements slowed equity growth while moderate requirements supported long-run capitalization. A time-varying capital adequacy policy was formulated as an optimal control problem, and the Pontryagin maximum principle was applied to derive an optimal regulatory path. The results showed that adaptive regulation stabilized capitalization while limiting policy costs. The trend reflected the value of the continuous-time control theory in financial regulation.

Keywords
Bank balance sheet
Capital adequacy ratio
Nonlinear differential equations
Optimal control
Financial regulation
Particle swarm optimization
Funding
This study was supported by the Selain Dana APBN Universitas Diponegoro through the International Scientific Publication (Riset Publikasi Internasional – RPI) scheme, under grant number 222-535/UN7.D2/PP/IV/2025.
Conflict of interest
The author declares there are no competing interests.
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