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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Laser sequence and build orientation govern interface quality in multi-material laser powder bed fusion

Jacklyn Griffis1,2 ,  Aishwarya Deshpande1 ,  Bryan Gong1 ,  Kazi Shahed3 ,  Avez Shaikh1 ,  Jeremy Schreiber2 ,  Guha Manogharan1,3*
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1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania , United States of America
2 Applied Research Laboratory at Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania , United States of America
3 Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering, College of Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania , United States of America
ESAM 2026, 2(4), 026360018 https://doi.org/10.36922/ESAM026360018
Received: 1 September 2026 | Revised: 16 September 2026 | Accepted: 29 September 2026 | Published online: 26 October 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
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Abstract

Multi-material laser powder bed fusion (MM-LPBF) offers the ability to locally tailor functional properties by combining dissimilar metals within a single component. However, achieving robust bonding at highly mismatched interfaces remains a critical challenge. This work investigates the interfacial evolution in CuCrZr–316LSS transitions, a material pair with extreme differences in thermal conductivity and a 75% difference in optimal volumetric energy density. This study investigates the interfacial formation mechanisms in CuCrZr–316LSS using five distinct interface configurations: (i) 316L deposited over CuCrZr across a horizontal interface, (ii) CuCrZr deposited over 316L across a horizontal interface, (iii) 316L deposited over CuCrZr along a diagonal interface, (iv) CuCrZr deposited over 316L along a diagonal interface, and (v) the two materials printed with a vertical interface via intralayer deposition. The results demonstrate that deposition order, i.e., laser scanning sequence, and interface geometry critically dictate the quality of interfaces in MM-LPBF systems. Microstructural characterization via optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, electron backscatter diffraction, and transmission electron microscopy revealed that exposure sequence strongly governs interfacial morphology, phase development, and the presence of interfacial defects. To further contextualize these results, meso-scale computational fluid dynamics simulations were employed to capture melt-pool dynamics, convection patterns, and material mixing behavior. Overall, this work clarifies the fundamental role of build orientation and laser scanning sequence in governing process stability and interface quality in MM-LPBF systems (copper- and iron-based in this study) and lays the foundation to achieve reliable interface quality in multi-material components manufactured through MM-LPBF.

Graphical abstract
Keywords
Laser scan strategy
Build orientation
Dissimilar metal interfaces
Multi-material additive manufacturing
Multi-material laser powder bed fusion
Process simulation
Selective powder deposition
Funding
The authors acknowledge the Applied Research Laboratory at The Pennsylvania State University for their support through the Walker Graduate Assistantship. This work was partially supported by the National Science Foundation under CMMI-EDSE Award No. 2130694.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests related to this work.
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