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REVIEW ARTICLE

Neuroinflammation and tumor microenvironment remodeling in brain tumors: Cellular interactions, immunometabolic adaptations, and therapeutic perspectives

Rijhul Lahariya1* ,  Gargee Anand2
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1 MBBS, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna, Bihar, India
2 Department of Microbiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna, Bihar, India
IMO, 026180020 https://doi.org/10.36922/IMO026180020
Received: 28 April 2026 | Revised: 19 May 2026 | Accepted: 21 May 2026 | Published online: 12 June 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution -Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC-by the license) ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ )
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Abstract

Brain tumors remain among the most aggressive and therapeutically challenging malignancies due to their highly complex and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Increasing evidence suggests that neuroinflammation plays a central role in tumor initiation, progression, angiogenesis, immune evasion, therapeutic resistance, and tumor recurrence. This review discusses the multifaceted role of neuroinflammatory signaling in primary and secondary brain tumors, with emphasis on the dynamic interactions between tumor cells, microglia, tumor-associated macrophages, neutrophils, dendritic cells, lymphocytes, and stromal components within the tumor microenvironment. Particular focus is placed on inflammatory cytokines and signaling pathways, including interleukin (IL)-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, transforming growth factor beta, programmed cell death protein 1/programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1), nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, and hypoxia-associated hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha signaling, which collectively contribute to immunosuppression and tumor progression. The review further highlights the importance of metabolic adaptation, hypoxia-driven remodeling, oxidative stress, and immune exhaustion in shaping the inflammatory landscape of central nervous system tumors. Emerging evidence regarding nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidases (NADPH oxidase 2 [NOX2], NOX4, and NOX5) and reactive oxygen species-mediated therapeutic resistance, particularly temozolomide resistance in glioblastoma, is also discussed. In addition, clinically relevant inflammatory biomarkers such as CD163+ tumor-associated macrophages, neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, PD-L1 expression, and isocitrate dehydrogenase-associated immune phenotypes are examined for their potential prognostic and therapeutic significance. Recent advances in therapeutic strategies targeting neuroinflammation, including colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor inhibitors, IL-6 pathway blockade, immune checkpoint modulation, anti-angiogenic therapy, and tumor microenvironment reprogramming approaches, are reviewed along with their current translational limitations. Overall, this review provides an integrative overview of the relationship between neuroinflammation and tumor microenvironment remodeling in brain tumors and highlights the growing potential of biomarker-guided and microenvironment-directed therapeutic strategies in neuro-oncology.

Graphical abstract
Keywords
Neuroinflammation
Central nervous system tumors
Tumor microenvironment
Immunotherapy
Anti-angiogenic therapy
Cytokine signaling
Funding
None.
Conflict of interest
All authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.
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