Generational comparison: Demographic drivers of organizational commitment under visionary leadership among Millennial and Generation Z young professionals
As Millennial and Generation Z professionals increasingly co-exist in the global workforce, understanding how demographic factors shape their organizational commitment has become a critical concern. This study employs a demographic-generational comparative framework to examine organizational commitment among Millennial (born 1981–1996) and Generation Z (born 1997–2012) young professionals. The central focus addresses how key demographic drivers—educational attainment, rural-to-urban migration background, and family structure—differentially affect three commitment dimensions: affective, continuance, and normative commitment. These effects are examined within a visionary leadership context. A stratified probability sampling design was employed to collect 600 valid responses, with multi-group confirmatory factor analysis applied to test measurement invariance across cohorts. Multi-group structural equation modeling and relative weight analysis were used to identify generational difference effects. The results indicate that educational attainment had a stronger effect on affective commitment among Millennials (β = 0.41) than among Generation Z respondents (β = 0.33). Rural-to-urban migration background and migrant identity explained substantially greater variance among Generation Z, with relative weights of 21.3% and 17.5%, respectively, representing a marked increase compared to the Millennial cohort. The path coefficient from visionary leadership to affective commitment differed across generations (Δβ = 0.17, p < 0.001). Despite this generational divergence, the boundary effects of demographic moderating variables demonstrated a systematic pattern across cohorts. These results contribute important empirical evidence to the intersection of international demography and youth labor behavior research and offer evidence-based guidance for designing differentiated leadership intervention policies targeting young professionals across distinct generational cohorts.
Abdelbary, R.E., Ramadan, M., Amin, A.I, Abd-Elsamea, F.S., Elsaghier, A.M., Adb-Alrahman, E.A., Ozbak, H.A., Hemeg, H,A., Almutawil, Y.A., Zakai, S.A., Abdelrahman, A.A., & Salah, M. (2025) Early-life demographic factors shape gut microbiome patterns associated with rotavirus gastroenteritis severity. Viruses, 17(12):1542. https://doi.org/10.3390/V17121542
Aladenika, T.E., Akinshipo, O.W., Adekunle, A.A., Bakare, T., Busch, T, Effiom, O.A., Adeyemo, W., & Butrali, A. (2025) Key clinical and demographic factors influencing head and neck tumor severity in Lagos. BMC Oral Health, 26(1):20. https://doi.org/10.1186/S12903-025-07235-0
Allen, B., Mun, J., Poutre, R., Chenna, S., Gillinow, S., Siddiq, B., Cherian, N., Eberlin, C., Woodrow, J., & Martin, S. (2025) EP242 The influence of demographic factors on bone marrow aspirate concentrate volume extracted from the body of the ilium. Journal of Hip Preservation Surgery, 12(Supplement_2):ii105–ii106. https://doi.org/10.1093/JHPS/HNAF069.340
Allen, N.J., & Meyer, J.P. (1990). The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance and normative commitment to the organization. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63(1):1– 18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1990.tb00506.x
Ambunda, R., & Neliwa, M. (2025) Temporal and demographic analysis of fatal and serious injury road crashes among drivers in Namibia. Engineering Headway, 28:25–35. https://doi.org/10.4028/P-S97SFL
Boutros, H.P., Papazian, T., Tawtah, L., Merhi, S., Salamen, W., & Fares, J.E.H. (2025) Associations of nutritional habits, lifestyle, and demographic factors with mental health outcomes among university students in Lebanon: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 26(1):91. https://doi.org/10.1186/S12889-025-25664-Y
Boz, C., & Kurnaz, S.F. (2025) Economic and demographic influences on health expenditures: Robust approaches for income and aging effects. Health Economics Review, 15(1):95. https://doi.org/10.1186/S13561-025-00631-W
Cavrini, G., Stavolo, A., Egidi, V., & Romero-Ortuño, R. (2025) The role of social and demographic factors in shaping frailty in Europe. Age and Ageing, 54(Supplement_4). https://doi.org/10.1093/AGEING/AFAF318.036
Coggan, H., Bischops, A., Chaudhari, P., Barak-Coeern, Y., Fine, A.M., Reis, B.Y., Aysola, J., & La Cava, W.G. (2026) Deciphering the influence of demographic factors on the treatment of pediatric patients in the emergency department. Pacific Symposium on Biocomputing, 31:551–565. https://doi.org/10.1142/9789819824755_0040
Douglas, N., Oosterhuis, M., & Valderrama, E.C. (2026) Evaluating the impact of demographic factors on subject-independent EEG-based emotion recognition approaches. Diagnostics, 16(1):144. https://doi.org/10.3390/DIAGNOSTICS16010144
Fitria, M., Laksono, D.A., Syahri, M.I., Wulandari, R.D., Astuti, Y., Matahari, R., & Nugroho, R.S. (2026) Determinants of permanent contraceptive use among multiparous women in Indonesia: The role of education and other demographic factors. Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health, 37:102280. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEGH.2025.102280
Huang, A.H., & Liu, Y.H. (2025) Difficulties and solutions in ideological guidance for Generation Z youth in state-owned enterprises. New Generation, (06):13–19.
Ionson, A., Li, J., & Foy, D.M. (2025) Poster Session A20— Associations between sociodemographic factors and surgical management of neurogenic bladder in individuals with spinal cord injury. Urology, 206(S):46. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.UROLOGY.2025.11.106
Islam, N., Chowdhury, A.N., Zaman, A.M., Huq, A.S., & Rasel, S.F.M. (2026) An econometric analysis in identifying behavioral and demographic factors associated with road crash severity in Bangladesh: Evidence from the Dhaka metropolitan city. PloS ONE, 21(1):e0340607. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0340607
Jaff, Z.H., & Saeed, A.B. (2025) Clinical characteristics and associated socio-demographic factors of autistic spectrum disorder in Erbil City: A cross-sectional study. Psychiatry International, 6(4):132. https://doi.org/10.3390/PSYCHIATRYINT6040132
Jia, H.Y., Chen, S., An, R., Liu, T., Han, L., Zeng, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2025) Study on the association between dietary behavior and work cognition among young health workers in the disease prevention and control system. Chinese Journal of Public Health Management, 41(03):399–403. https://doi.org/10.19568/j.cnki.23-1318.2025.03.0022
Ju, F., Lin, X.W., Yuan, H.X., Tan, J.Z., Shi, Z.J., & Luo, G.J. (2024) Difficulties and solutions in entrepreneurship cultivation of modern young agricultural practitioners in Nantong from the perspective of rural revitalization. Quality Agricultural Products, (11):76–78.
Jurkovicová, L., Páleník, J., Ružicková, A., Roman, R., & Brázdil, M. (2025) The pattern glare test: Further exploration of methodological and demographic factors. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 66(14):49. https://doi.org/10.1167/IOVS.66.14.49
Khariri, K., Sunarno, S., Panjaitan, D.S.N., Yuliandari, P., Handayani, S., Dewi, R.M., Sari, A.I.P., Fitriana, F., Pasiana, A.D., Kusrini, I., & Njoto, E.N (2026) Determinants of subclinical leprosy among household contacts in Indonesia: Serological and socio-demographic factors. PeerJ, 14:e20631. https://doi.org/10.7717/PEERJ.20631
Kumar, D. P., Ashok, K. R., Hemalatha, S., & Olive, P. F. (2022). Role of demographic factors in relationship with high-performance work system. Current Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 41(35):31–41. https://doi.org/10.9734/cjast/2022/v41i1231705
Leon, S., Alomeir, N., Xiao, J., & Wu, T.T. (2026) Maternal and demographic factors influencing oral Candida albicans in infants: A stratified analysis using a novel partial linear semiparametric mixed-effects model. PloS ONE, 21(2):e0340317. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0340317
Li, H., & Tang, X.D. (2025) Study on the pathways of red culture driving rural revitalization from the perspective of Generation Z. Journal of Anhui Agricultural Sciences, 53(23):109–114. https://ahnye.cbpt.cnki.net/portal/journal/portal/client/paper/9a4fa25b8b2cc06bff022dd7463f765b
Liu, P.C., Liu, S.Y., & Zeng, F.L. (2025) Survey of mental health literacy among Chongqing residents and analysis of demographic characteristics and related factors. Journal of Chongqing Medical University, 49(07): 859–864. https://doi.org/10.13406/j.cnki.cyxb.003538
Ma, L. (2025) Profiling teacher support in foreign language classroom: Associations with student emotions, engagement, and demographic factors. European Journal of Education, 61(1):e70414. https://doi.org/10.1111/EJED.70414
Mannheim, K. (1952). The problem of generations. In: P. Kecskemeti (Ed.), Essays on the sociology of knowledge (pp. 276–322). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Ma’ruf, H., Juhaidi, A., Hafiz, R.M., Fotri, S. (2025) Uncovering the influence of demographic factors on the emotional regulation of Alpha generation students in Islamic educational institutions in Indonesia: The role of parenting style as a mediator. Cogent Education, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2025.2511448
Mofokeng, J.T., Gyarteng, A.K., & Dhliwayo, S. (2025) Demographic influences on employee perceptions: Performance management, motivation, and career advancement. Cogent Business & Management, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2025.2480242
Moradi, H., Raeisvandi, A., Bahrami, M., Amerzadeh, M., Abbaso, M., Hosseinkhani, Z., & Osooli, M. (2025) The association of self-rated health with physical activity and demographic factors: A study in primary care from Northwest of Iran. BMC Primary Care, 26(1):374. https://doi.org/10.1186/S12875-025-03099-Z
Mu, G.Z., Hou, M.S., Yin, S.S., Mu, Y.H., Li, W., & Zhang, Y.Q. (2024) Strong youth, strong nation: Demographicprospective and optimization of youth population development. Journal of China Agricultural University (Social Sciences Edition), 41(02):5–28. https://doi.org/10.13240/j.cnki.caujsse.20240026.002
Radeva, N.M., Hristova, E., Georgiev, T.R., & Zlatarova, Z.I. (2026) Awareness, trust, and expectations of AI for glaucoma care among Bulgarian ophthalmologists: Role of demographic factors. PLOS Digital Health, 5(1):e0001199. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PDIG.0001199
Rafferty, A.E., & Griffin, M.A. (2004). Dimensions of transformational leadership: Conceptual and empirical extensions. The Leadership Quarterly, 15(3):329–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2004.02.009
Sia, T., Taleb, A.F., Ma, C., Li, S., & Chang, A.L.S. (2026) Prevalence, demographic factors, co-morbidities, and treatment types associated with acanthosis nigricans in a large cross-section of 900+ transmasculine patients: Data from a single academic center 2016–2023. PloS ONE, 21(1):e0340907. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0340907
Silveira, E.P.G., Portela, F.L., Saavedra, B.L., Costa, F.P., Pinto, D.P., Carneiro, F.M., Almeida-Silva, J., Sperandio da Silva, G.M., Mediano, M.F.F., Cattani, V.B., Quintana, M.S.B., Silva, P.S., Sangenis, L.H.C., Costa, A.R., Hasslocher-Moreno, A.M., Viçosa A.L., Perez, S.A.C., Vannier-Santos, M.A., Estrela, R. & Saraiva, R.M. (2026) Benznidazole pharmacokinetics in patients with chronic Chagas disease: Association with demographic factors and adverse drug reactions. The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 81(1). https://doi.org/10.1093/JAC/DKAF416
Song, M., Gurnani, S.A., Gifford, K., KIM, Y.-M., Kim, M.-Y., Lee, M-Y., Shin, M.-H., Koh, S.-B., Kim, H.-C., Kang, Y., & Au, R. (2025) Cultural effects of demographic factors on cognitive function: Findings from U.S. and Korea. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 21(S3):e102885. https://doi.org/10.1002/ALZ70857_102885
Sous, W., Sharma, A., Shaw, V.A., Heckel, A.R., Hrffernan, K.S., & Mutambudzi, M. (2025) A pilot study exploring biobehavioral, psychosocial, and demographic factors associated with central blood pressure in resettled refugees in Syracuse, New York. American Journal of Human Biology, 37(12):e70174. https://doi.org/10.1002/AJHB.70174
Stark, S., Zona, N., Pinney, S., Alpert, T., & Hunt, K. (2025) A 6-year analysis of diagnosis and demographic factors in custom and prefabricated foot orthosis prescriptions at a large institution. Foot & Ankle Orthopaedics, 10(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/2473011425S00091
Tanveer, Z., Rafiq, M., Sheikh, S.I., Ali, H,M., Mustafa, M.Z., Maqbool, T., Asif, S., Almutairi, B.O., & Lip, K. (2025) Heroin addiction is associated with cognitive deficiency, neurobiological alterations and socio-demographic factors in adolescents. Psychological Reports. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941251400691
Wu, Y., & Shi, Y. From Millennials to Generation Z: (2025) National differences, generational changes, and influencing factors in foreign youth perceptions of China. Contemporary Youth Studies, (06):100–115. https://qing.cbpt.cnki.net/portal/journal/portal/client/ paper/5157ef2117dd30ac1050d1f6228b91ab
Xie, Y.F., & Hu, T. (2025) Research on the cultivation of comprehensive literacy among Generation Z youth through the China International College Students’ Innovation Competition. Literature and Education Materials, (23):206– 208. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1004-8359.2025.23.060
Zhang, J.Y., Zhang, Y., Cao, X., Zhang, G.L., & Gao, L. (2025) Relationship between gastric cancer gastroscopy screening results and demographic characteristics in a physical examination population. Cancer Progress, 23(20):2434– 2437. https://doi.org/10.11877/j.issn.1672-1535.2025.23.20.21
Zhao, X. (2024) Demographic characteristics and lifestyle-related factors of depressive symptoms in Chinese children and adolescents. Journal of Army Medical University, 46(20):2360–2368. https://doi.org/10.16016/j.2097-0927.202405114