Comparative analysis of the material properties of four commonly used timber species in the restoration of historical buildings in Shanxi, China
Historical timber buildings in Shanxi province, China, face significant restoration challenges due to natural degradation, extreme weather events, and restrictions on native timber harvesting, necessitating the use of alternative timber species for structural repairs. This study examines the material properties of four timber species – Chinese pine (Pinus tabuliformis Carrière), larch (Larix gmelinii var. principis-rupprechtii [Mayr] Pilger), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii [Mirbel] Franco), and Mongolian Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica Litv.) – commonly used in the restoration of historical timber buildings in Shanxi. Given the structural diversity of these buildings, six loading modes were applied to assess the suitability of each species for different structural components: compression parallel to the grain, compression perpendicular to the grain in the radial direction, shear parallel to grain along the longitudinal-radial plane, shear parallel to grain along the longitudinal-tangential plane, four-point static bending, and tension. Douglas fir exhibited the highest compressive strength parallel to the grain, making it well-suited for load-bearing components, while Chinese pine demonstrated strong compressive strength perpendicular to the grain in the radial direction. Larch and Douglas fir excelled in shear resistance, and all four species exhibited high bending strengths, supporting their use in primary structural components. In contrast, Mongolian Scots pine exhibiting lower shear and bending strengths is more appropriate for non-load-bearing applications where structural demands are minimal. Positive correlations between strength, density, and dynamic modulus of elasticity suggest that density and ultrasonic testing can serve as effective non-destructive evaluation methods. These findings provide valuable insights into material selection for heritage timber restoration, promoting species-specific applications that enhance structural resilience while preserving traditional carpentry techniques.
Arriaga, F., Osuna-Sequera, C., Bobadilla, I., & Esteban, M. (2022). Prediction of the mechanical properties of timber members in existing structures using the dynamic modulus of elasticity and visual grading parameters. Construction and Building Materials, 322:126512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.126512
Arriaga, F., Wang, X., Íñiguez-González, G., Llana, D. F., Esteban, M., & Niemz, P. (2023). Mechanical properties of wood: A review. Forests, 14(6):1202. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14061202
Aydin, S., Yardimci, M. Y., & Ramyar, K. (2007). Mechanical properties of four timber species commonly used in Turkey. Turkish Journal of Engineering and Environmental Sciences, 31(1):19-27.
Barber, N. F., & Meylan, B. A. (1964). The anisotropic shrinkage of wood. A theoretical model. 18:146-156 https://doi.org/10.1515/hfsg.1964.18.5.146
Beall, F. C. (2002). Overview of the use of ultrasonic technologies in research on wood properties. Wood Science and Technology, 36(3):197-212. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-002-0138-4
Carrillo, M., & Carreón H. (2019). Ultrasonic Determination of the Elastic and Shear Modulus on Aged wood, Proceedings. SPIE 10971, Nondestructive Characterization and Monitoring of Advanced Materials, Aerospace, Civil Infrastructure, and Transportation XIII, 109711Z. https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2513294
Cheng, L.J., Wang M.L., & Sun Z.B. (2023). Effects of thinning on the density and mechanical properties of Pinus tabuliformis. Forestry Science and Technology, 48(05):14-17. https://doi.org/10.19750/j.cnki.1001-9499.2023.05.004
Cunha, C., Tenório, M., Lima, D. F., Rebouças, A., Neves, L. C., & Branco, J. M. (2021). Mechanical characterization of iroko wood using small specimens. Buildings, 11:116. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings11030116
Dong, M., Zhou, H., Jiang, X., Lu, Y., Wang, W., & Yin, Y. (2017). Wood used in ancient timber architecture in Shanxi Province, China. IAWA Journal, 38(2):182-200. https://doi.org/10.1163/22941932-20170167
El Najjar, J., & Mustapha, S. (2021). Condition assessment of timber utility poles using ultrasonic guided waves. Construction and Building Materials, 272:121902. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121902
Ettelaei, A., Layeghi, M., Hosseinabadi, H. Z., & Ebrahimi, G. (2019). Prediction of modulus of elasticity of poplar wood using ultrasonic technique by applying empirical correction factors. Measurement, 135:392-399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2018.11.076
Farhan, S. L., & Nasar, Z. A. (2020). Urban identity in the holy cities of Iraq: Analysis of architectural design trends in the city of Karbala. Journal of Urban Regeneration and Renewal, 14(2):210-222.
General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of the People’s Republic of China, & Standardization Administration of China. (2021). GB/T 1927.2-2021: Test Methods for Physical and Mechanical Properties of Small Clear Wood Specimens-Part 2: Sampling Methods and General Requirements (GB/T 1927.2-2021). China Standards Press. Available from: https://openstd. samr.gov.cn/bzgk/gb/std_list?p.p1=0&p.p90=circulation_ date&p.p91=desc&p.p2=GB/T%201927.2-2021 [Last accessed on 2025 Mar 29].
General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of the People’s Republic of China, & Standardization Administration of China. (2021). GB/T 1927.3-2021: Test Methods for Physical and Mechanical Properties of Small Clear Wood Specimens-Part 3: Determination of the Growth Rings Width and Latewood Rate of Wood (GB/T 1927.3-2021). China Standards Press. Available from: https://openstd.samr.gov.cn/bzgk/gb/ std_list?p.p1=0&p.p90=circulation_date&p.p91=desc&p. p2=gb/t%201927.3-2021 [Last accessed on 2025 Mar 29].
General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of the People’s Republic of China, & Standardization Administration of China. (2021). GB/T 1927.9-2021: Test Methods for Physical and Mechanical Properties of Small Clear Wood Specimens-Part 9: Determination of Bending Strength (GB/T 1927.9-2021). China Standards Press. Available from: https://openstd. samr.gov.cn/bzgk/gb/std_list?p.p1=0&p.p90=circulation_ date&p.p91=desc&p.p2=GB/T%201927.9-2021 [Last accessed on 2025 Mar 29].
General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of the People’s Republic of China, & Standardization Administration of China. (2022). GB/T 1927.11-2022: Test Methods for Physical and Mechanical Properties of Small Clear Wood Specimens - Part 11: Determination of Ultimate Stress in Compression Parallel to Grain (GB/T 1927.11-2022). China Standards Press. Available from: https://openstd.samr.gov.cn/bzgk/gb/ std_list?p.p1=0&p.p90=circulation_date&p.p91=desc&p. p2=gb/t%201927.11-2022 [Last accessed on 2025 Mar 29].
General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of the People’s Republic of China, & Standardization Administration of China. (2021). GB/T 1927.12-2021: Test Methods for Physical and Mechanical Properties of Small Clear Wood Specimens - Part 12: Determination of Strength in Compression Perpendicular to Grain (GB/T 1927.12-2021). China Standards Press. Available from: https://openstd.samr.gov.cn/bzgk/gb/ std_list?p.p1=0&p.p90=circulation_date&p.p91=desc&p. p2=gb/t%201927.12-2021
General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of the People’s Republic of China, & Standardization Administration of China. (2022). GB/T 1927.14-2022: Test Methods for Physical and Mechanical Properties of Small Clear Wood Specimens - Part 14: Determination of Tensile Strength Parallel to Grain (GB/T 1927.14-2022). China Standards Press. Available from: https://openstd.samr.gov.cn/bzgk/gb/std_list?p.p1=0&p. p90=circulation_date&p.p91=desc&p.p2=GB/T%20 1927.14-2022
General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of the People’s Republic of China, & Standardization Administration of China. (2022). GB/T 1927.16-2022: Test Methods for Physical and Mechanical Properties of Small Clear Wood Specimens-Part 16: Method of Testing in Shearing Strength Parallel to Grain of Wood (GB/T 1927.16-2022). China Standards Press. Available from: https://openstd.samr.gov.cn/bzgk/gb/std_list?p.p1=0&p. p90=circulation_date&p.p91=desc&p.p2=gb/t%201927.16- 2022 [Last accessed on 2025 Mar 29].
Hrebenarova, E., & Wald, F. (2022). Comparison of mechanical properties of the eldest larch wood construction with oak wood and spruce wood. Wood Research, 67(4):612-624. https://doi.org/10.37763/wr.1336-4561/67.4.612624
Jin, J., Abudula, W., & Jia, Z. (2024). Effect of stand age and stand density on building material property of Pinus tabulaeformis. Journal of Central South University of Forestry and Technology, 44(7):77-89. https://doi.org/10.14067/j.cnki.1673-923x.2024.07.009
Krause, M., Dackermann, U., & Li, J. (2015). Elastic wave modes for the assessment of structural timber: Ultrasonic echo for building elements and guided waves for pole and pile structures. Journal of Civil Structural Health Monitoring, 5:221-249. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13349-014-0087-2
Lin, C. J., Tsai, M. J., Lee, C. J., Wang, S. Y., & Lin, L. D. (2007). Effects of ring characteristics on the compressive strength and dynamic modulus of elasticity of seven softwood species. Holzforschung, 61(4):414-418. https://doi.org/10.1515/HF.2007.077
Meng, X. J. (2016). Experimental study on the wood Compression Properties for Ancient buildings’ Protection. Taiyuan, China: Taiyuan University of Technology. https://doi. org/10.16355/j.cnki.issn1007-9432tyut.2016.05.012
Missanjo, E., & Matsumura, J. (2016). Wood density and mechanical properties of Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon in Malawi. Forests, 7(7):135. https://doi.org/10.3390/f7070135
Olisa, S. C., Khan, M. A., & Starr, A. (2021). Review of current guided wave ultrasonic testing (GWUT) limitations and future directions. Sensors, 21(3):811. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21030811
Ramage, M. H., Burridge, H., Busse-Wicher, M., Fereday, G., Reynolds, T., Shah, D. U., et al. (2017). The wood from the trees: The use of timber in construction. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 68:333-359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.09.107
Senalik, C. A., & Farber, B. (2021). Mechanical Properties of Wood. FPL-GTR-282, 5-1. Ch. 5. Available from: https://research. fs.usda.gov/treesearch/62244 [Last accessed on 2025 Mar 29].
Sun, J., Zhao, R., Zhong, Y., & Chen, Y. (2022). Compressive mechanical properties of larch wood in different grain orientations. Polymers, 14(18):3771. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14183771
Wang, H., Zhang X., & Liu H. (2022). Study on Rainstorm Damage and Countermeasures of Historical Villages in Shanxi Province, China: Taking Ding Village as an Example. Proceeding of Historical Urban Disaster Prevention, 16:159-164. https://doi.org/10.34382/00017604
Wang, Z., Ma, C., Ding Z., & Bao Y. (2022). Effect of thermal treatment on mechanical properties and colors of the wood of Larix principis-rupprechti plantation. Forestry and Ecological Sciences, 37(4):403-417. https://doi.org/10.13320/j.cnki.hjfor.2022.0057
Xie, Y., Fu, Q., Wang, Q., Xiao, Z., & Militz, H. (2013). Effects of chemical modification on the mechanical properties of wood. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products, 71(4):401-416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00107-013-0693-4
Xin, X., Zhang S., & Zhao C. (2017). Study on the mainly wood physical and mechanical properties of import lumber of Larix kaempferi Carr. Forestry and Grassland Machinery, 28(1):6-13. https://doi.org/10.13594/j.cnki.mcjgjx.2017.01.002
Zeidler, A., Borůvka, V., Černý, J., & Baláš, M. (2022). Douglas-fir outperforms most commercial European softwoods. Industrial Crops and Products, 181:114828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2022.114828
Zhang, D. (2024). Properties change under natural aging of ancient building larch members. Journal of Civil and Environmental Engineering. 46(3):144-151. https://doi.org/10.11835/jissn.2096-6717.2021.272
Zhang, J., Nieminen, K., Serra, J. A. A., & Helariutta, Y. (2014). The formation of wood and its control. Current Opinion in Plant Biology, 17:56-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbi.2013.11.003
Zhang, S. (2022). Analysis of Bearing Capacity and Dynamic Response of Wood Structure Components [D]. China: Mongolia Agricultural University. https://doi.org/10.27229/d.cnki.gnmnu.2022.001346