Internet use and cognitin among American middle-aged and older adults: The gendered moderating effect of age
The popularity of Internet use brings more potential for healthy cognitive aging among older adults. Emerging studies have examined the age and gender differences in the link between older adults’ Internet use and cognition. However, few studies have investigated the gendered age difference regarding this association. The purpose of this study was to examine whether age would moderate the effect of Internet use on cognition among middle-aged and older adults and whether this relationship would be different between men and women. A total of 6,338 adults aged 50 or older were drawn on from the 2016 Wave of the Health and Retirement Study. Sequential linear regressions were conducted to examine the interactions between Internet use, age, and gender on cognition. The three-way interaction of Internet use, age, and gender was a significant predictor of cognition (β = 0.01, p < 0.05). Specifically, the positive effect of Internet use on cognition was higher among older women of older age than those of younger age, while the positive effect remained the same for older men of different ages. The Internet offers a valuable resource for engaging middle-aged and older adults in activities that not only provide social interaction but also stimulate cognitive processes. The study suggests that the aging process does not necessarily inhibit the cognitive benefits that middle-aged and older adults can gain from using the Internet. Findings from this study indicated that future Internet/technology training to increase cognition among middle-aged and older adults should be age- and gender-tailored.
American Association for Retired Persons. (n.d). Free Online Games. Washington, DC: AARP. Available from: https:// games.aarp.org [Last accessed on 2024 Jan 31].
Bakan, D. (1966). The Duality of Human Existence: An Essay on Psychology and Religion. Chicago: Rand McNally.
Bonnechère, B., Langley, C., & Sahakian, B.J. (2020). The use of commercial computerised cognitive games in older adults: A meta-analysis. Scientific Reports, 10(1):1-14. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-72281-3
Brand, M., Young, K.S., & Laier, C. (2014). Prefrontal control and Internet addiction: A theoretical model and review of neuropsychological and neuroimaging findings. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8:375. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00375
Carrier, L.M., Cheever, N.A., Rosen, L.D., Benitez, S., & Chang, J. (2009). Multitasking across generations: Multitasking choices and difficulty ratings in three generations of Americans. Computers in Human Behavior, 25(2):483-489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2008.10.012
Choi, N.G., & Dinitto, D.M. (2013). Internet use among older adults: Association with health needs, psychological capital, and social capital. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 15(5):e97. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.2333
De Schutter, B. (2011). Never too old to play: The appeal of digital games to an older audience. Games and Culture, 6(2):155-170. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555412010364978
Firth, J., Torous, J., Stubbs, B., Firth, J.A., Steiner, G.Z., Smith, L., et al. (2019). The “online brain”: How the Internet may be changing our cognition. World Psychiatry: Official Journal of the World Psychiatric Association, 18(2):119-129. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20617
Freese, J., Rivas, S., & Hargittai, E. (2006). Cognitive ability and Internet use among older adults. Poetics, 34(4-5):236-249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2006.05.008
Friemel, T.N. (2016). The digital divide has grown old: Determinants of a digital divide among seniors. New Media and Society, 18(2):313-331. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814538648
Gindrat, A.D., Chytiris, M., Balerna, M., Rouiller, E.M., & Ghosh, A. (2015). Use-dependent cortical processing from fingertips in touchscreen phone users. Current Biology, 25(1):109-116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.11.026
Harvard Health. (2020), The Thinking on Brain Games. Available from: https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/ the-thinking-on-brain-games [Last accessed on 2024 Jan 31].
Hunsaker, A., & Hargittai, E. (2018). A review of Internet use among older adults. New Media and Society, 20(10):3937-3954. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818787348
Hwang, J., Park, S., & Kim, S. (2018). Effects of participation in social activities on cognitive function among middle-aged and older adults in Korea. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(10):2315. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15102315
Ihle, A., Bavelier, D., Maurer, J., Oris, M., & Kliegel, M. (2020). Internet use in old age predicts smaller cognitive decline only in men. Scientific Reports, 10(1):1-10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-65846-9
James, B.D., Boyle, P.A., Yu, L., & Bennett, D.A. (2013). Internet use and decision making in community-based older adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 4:605. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00605
James, B.D., Wilson, R.S., Barnes, L.L., & Bennett, D.A. (2011). Late-life social activity and cognitive decline in old age. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17(6):998-1005. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617711000531
Keenan, T.A. (2009). Internet Use among Midlife and Older Adults: An AARP Bulletin Poll. Washington, DC: AARP. Available from: https://assets.aarp.org/rgcenter/general/ bulletin_internet_09.pdf [Last accessed on 2024 Jan 31].
Kelly, M.E., Duff, H., Kelly, S., McHugh Power, J.E., Brennan, S., Lawlor, B.A., et al. (2017). The impact of social activities, social networks, social support and social relationships on the cognitive functioning of healthy older adults: A systematic review. Systematic Reviews, 6(1):259. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-017-0632-2
Klimova, B. (2016). Use of the Internet as a prevention tool against cognitive decline in normal aging. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 11:1231-1237. https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S113758
Kobayashi, L.C., Wardle, J., & von Wagner, C. (2015). Internet use, social engagement and health literacy decline during ageing in a longitudinal cohort of older English adults. Journal of Epidemiology Community Health, 69(3):278-283. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2014-204733
König, R., Seifert, A., & Doh, M. (2018). Internet use among older Europeans: An analysis based on SHARE data. Universal Access in the Information Society, 17(3):621-633. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10209-018-0609-5
Loh, K.K., & Kanai, R. (2016). How has the Internet reshaped human cognition? The Neuroscientist, 22(5):506-520. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073858415595005
O’Connor, A. (2017), Top-ranked Colleges for Older Adult Students. Washington, DC: AARP. Available from: https:// www.aarp.org/work/working-after-retirement/info-2017/ best-colleges-for-older-students-fd.html [Last accessed on 2024 Jan 31].
Ophir, E., Nass, C., & Wagner, A.D. (2009). Cognitive control in media multitaskers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(37):15583-15587. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0903620106
Pearce, C. (2008). The truth about baby boomer gamers: A study of over-forty computer game players. Games and Culture, 3(2):142-174. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555412008314132
Shapira, N., Barak, A., & Gal, I. (2007). Promoting older adults’ well-being through Internet training and use. Aging and Mental Health, 11(5):477-484. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607860601086546
Sharma, N., Classen, J., & Cohen, L.G. (2013). Neural plasticity and its contribution to functional recovery. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 110:3-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-52901-5.00001-0
Sun, X., Yan, W., Zhou, H., Wang, Z., Zhang, X., Huang, S., et al. (2020). Internet use and need for digital health technology among the elderly: A cross-sectional survey in China. BMC Public Health, 20(1):1-8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-09448-0
Toril, P., Reales, J.M., & Ballesteros, S. (2014). Video game training enhances cognition of older adults: A meta-analytic study. Psychology and Aging, 29(3):706-716. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037507
United Nations. (2023). International Day of Older Persons. United States: United Nations. Available from: https://www. un.org/en/observances/older-persons-day#:~:text=The%20 number%20of%20older%20people
van Boekel, L.C., Peek, S.T., & Luijkx, K.G. (2017). Diversity in older adults’ use of the internet: Identifying subgroups through latent class analysis. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 19(5):e180. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.6853
Van Deursen, A.J., & Helsper, E.J. (2015). A nuanced understanding of Internet use and non-use among the elderly. European Journal of Communication, 30(2):171-187. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323115578059
Wang, K., Chen, X.S., Gu, D., Smith, B.D., Dong, Y., & Peet, J.Z. (2024b). Examining first and second-level digital divide at the intersection of race/ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status: An analysis of the national health and aging trends study. The Gerontologist, 64:gnae079. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnae079
Wang, K., Chen, X.S., Kang, S.Y., Smith, B.D., & Gu, D. (2024a). Older adults’ online activities and cognition: Investigating the psychological mechanisms and age and gender differences. Social Science and Medicine, 352:116988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.116988
Weiser, E.B. (2000). Gender differences in Internet use patterns and Internet application preferences: A two-sample comparison. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 3(2):167-178. https://doi.org/10.1089/109493100316012
Yu, D., & Fiebig, D.G. (2020). Internet use and cognition among middle-aged and older adults in China: A cross-lagged panel analysis. The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, 17:100262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeoa.2020.100262
Yu, R.P., Ellison, N.B., McCammon, R.J., & Langa, K.M. (2016). Mapping the two levels of digital divide: Internet access and social network site adoption among older adults in the USA. Information, Communication and Society, 19(10):1445-1464. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2015.1109695
Yuan, M., Chen, J., Zhou, Z., Yin, J., Wu, J., Luo, M., et al. (2019). Joint associations of smartphone use and gender on multidimensional cognitive health among community-dwelling older adults: A cross-sectional study. BMC Geriatrics, 19(1):1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-019-1151-x
Zhang, F., & Kaufman, D. (2016). Physical and cognitive impacts of digital games on older adults: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 35(11):1189-1210. https://doi.org/10.1177/0733464814566678
Zheng, Z., Zhu, X., Yin, S., Wang, B., Niu, Y., Huang, X., et al. (2015). Combined cognitive-psychological-physical intervention induces reorganization of intrinsic functional brain architecture in older adults. Neural Plasticity, 2015:713104. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/713104