Personality traits in homosexual men with different sex roles in Iran
Studies on homosexual men reveal a secondary self-label, the sex role, which can affect many dimensions of their lives. Based on their roles in anal intercourse, homosexual men adopt self-label or sex role as top, bottom, and versatile. Unwelcoming social space, along with the legal and religious constraints in Islamic communities on homosexuality has made information about their personality traits scarce. Therefore, this study assessed the personality traits of homosexual men with different sex roles and compared them to each other and heterosexual men. In an ex post facto study, 197 Iranian homosexual men (30 tops, 36 bottoms, and 131 versatile) and 49 Iranian heterosexual men were included using purposive and snowball samplings to complete a short 71-item Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2). The results showed top group obtaining highest mean score among the groups for scales of validity (F) and hypochondriasis (Hs), while bottom group obtaining highest mean scores for scales correction (K), depression (D), hysteria (Hy), paranoia (Pa), psychasthenia (Pt), and hypomania (Ma). These results suggested that bottoms encounter more difficulties in forming relationships and concealing their sexual identity. Depression, hopelessness, and a sense of failure in attracting support and affection from others are more prominent among bottoms.
Allen, P.J., & Bennett, K. (2008). SPSS for the Health and Behavioural Sciences. Australia: Thomson.
Ashby, J.S., & Rice, K.G. (2002). Perfectionism, dysfunctional attitudes, and self‐esteem: A structural equations analysis. Journal of Counseling and Development, 80(2): 197-203. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2002.tb00183.x
Besharat, M.A., Karimi, S., & Saadati, M. (2016). A comparison of childhood gender nonconformity and fertility rate in a lineage in male homosexuals and heterosexuals. Contemporary Psychology, Biannual Journal of the Iranian Psychological Association, 10(2): 3-14.
Blashill, A.J., & Powlishta, K.K. (2009). Gay stereotypes: The use of sexual orientation as a cue for gender-related attributes. Sex Roles, 61(11-12): 783-793. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9684-7
Bogaert, A.F., Ashton, M.C., & Lee, K. (2018). Personality and sexual orientation: Extension to asexuality and the HEXACO model. Journal of Sex Research, 55(8): 951-961. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2017.1287844
Carballo‐Diéguez, A., Dolezal, C., Nieves, L., Díaz, F., Decena, C., & Balan, I. (2004). Looking for a tall, dark, macho man… Sexual‐role behaviour variations in Latino gay and bisexual men. Culture, Health and Sexuality, 6(2): 159-171. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691050310001619662
Carper, T.L.M., Negy, C., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (2010). Relations among media influence, body image, eating concerns, and sexual orientation in men: A preliminary investigation. Body Image, 7(4): 301-309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2010.07.002
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. New York: Routledge Academic.
Crocker, J., & Wolfe, C.T. (2001). Contingencies of self-worth. Psychological Review, 108(3): 593-623. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.108.3.593
Dawson, R.L. (1985). Attention seeking behaviour. In: Teacher Information Pack 1: Behaviour. London: Palgrave, p.33-40. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-08997-0_3
Downey, G., & Feldman, S. I. (1996). Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(6), 1327–1343. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.70.6.1327
Eslen-Ziya, H., & Koç, Y. (2016). Being a gay man in Turkey: Internalised sexual prejudice as a function of prevalent hegemonic masculinity perceptions. Culture, Health and Sexuality, 18(7): 799-811. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2015.1133846
Fernàndez-Alemany, M., & Murray, S.O. (2003). Heterogender Homosexuality in Honduras. New York: Writers Club Press.
Gandhi, K., Singh, J., & Singh, T. (2014). Personality and family environment among homosexual and heterosexual adults: An exploration. Indian Journal of Social Science Research, 11: 41-49.
Gil, S. (2007). A narrative exploration of homosexual men’s sexual practices as a dialectical dialogue. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 22(1): 63-75. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681990600861057
Gilbert, P., & Gerlsma, C. (1999). Recall of shame and favouritism in relation to psychopathology. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38(4): 357-373. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466599162962
Goenjian, A.K., Steinberg, A.M., Najarian, L.M., Fairbanks, L.A., Tashjian, M., & Pynoos, R.S. (2000). Prospective study of posttraumatic stress, anxiety, and depressive reactions after earthquake and political violence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(6): 911-916. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.157.6.911
Hart, T.A., Wolitski, R.J., Purcell, D.W., Gómez, C., Halkitis, P., & Seropositive Urban Men’s Study Team. (2003). Sexual behavior among HIV-positive men who have sex with men: What’s in a label. Journal of Sex Research, 40: 179-188. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490309552179
Hathaway, S.R., & McKinley, J.C. (1943). MMPI. Manual for Administration and Scoring. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Available from: http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&journal =Mmpi2E+Manual+for+Administration+and+Scoring %2E&author=Hathaway+S.+R.&author=McKinley+ J.+C.&publication_year=1943
Heckhausen, J., Wrosch, C., & Schulz, R. (2010). A motivational theory of life-span development. Psychological Review, 117(1): 32-60. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017668
Herek, G.M., & McLemore, K.A. (2013). Sexual prejudice. Annual Review of Psychology, 64: 309-333. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143826
Hosseinchari, M., Davoudi, H., Ali Hooman, H., & Sharifi, H.P. (2011). An Iranian shortened version of MMPI-2. Quarterly of Educational Measurement, 1(3): 1-20.
Labi, N. (2007). The Kingdom in the Closet: Saudi Arabia’s Gay Underground. Vol. 299. Washington, DC: Atlantic Monthly, p.70-82. Available from: https://www.theatlantic. com/magazine/archive/2007/05/the-kingdom-in-the-closet/305774
Larsen, R.J. (2009). Personality Psychology: Domains of Knowledge about Human Nature. 4th ed. New York: McGraw Hill Higher Education.
Lehne, G. (1989). Homophobia among men: Supporting and defining the male role. In: Kimmel, M., & Messner, M.A. (eds.). Men’s Lives. United States: Macmillan, p.416-429.
Levesque, M.J., & Vichesky, D.R. (2006). Raising the bar on the body beautiful: An analysis of the body image concerns of homosexual men. Body Image, 3(1): 45-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2005.10.007
Lingiardi, V., & Nardelli, N. (2014). Negative attitudes to lesbians and homosexual men: Persecutors and victims. In: Emotional, Physical and Sexual Abuse. Cham: Springer, p.33-47. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-06787-2_3
Liu, J., Zhong, X., Lu, Z., Peng, B., Zhang, Y., Liang, H., & Huang, A. (2020). Anxiety and depression associated with anal sexual practices among HIV-negative men who have sex with men in Western China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(2): 464. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17020464
Matos, M., Carvalho, S.A., Cunha, M., Galhardo, A., & Sepodes, C. (2017). Psychological flexibility and self-compassion in gay and heterosexual men: How they relate to childhood memories, shame, and depressive symptoms. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 11(2): 88-105. https://doi.org/10.1080/15538605.2017.1310007
McCrae, R.R., & Costa, P.T. Jr. (2008). The five-factor theory of personality. In: John, O.P., Robins, R.W., & Pervin, L.A. (eds.). Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research. 3rd ed. New York: Guilford Press, p.159-180.
Morrison, M.A., Morrison, T.G., & Sager, C.L. (2004). Does body satisfaction differ between homosexual men and lesbian women and heterosexual men and women? A meta-analytic review. Body Image, 1(2): 127-138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2004.01.002
Moskowitz, D.A., & Hart, T.A. (2011). The influence of physical body traits and masculinity on anal sex roles in gay and bisexual men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40(4): 835-841. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-011-9754-0
Moskowitz, D.A., Rieger, G., & Roloff, M.E. (2008). Tops, bottoms and versatiles. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 23(3): 191-202. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681990802027259
Murray, S.O. (2000). Homosexualities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Nay, R., McAuliffe, L., & Bauer, M. (2007). Sexuality: From stigma, stereotypes and secrecy to coming out, communication and choice. International Journal of Older People Nursing, 2(1): 76-80. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-3743.2007.00052.x
Needham, B.L., & Austin, E.L. (2010). Sexual orientation, parental support, and health during the transition to young adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(10): 1189-1198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-010-9533-6
Nezami, E., Zamani, R., & DeFrank, G. (2008). Linguistic translation of psychological assessment tools: A case study of the MMPI-2. Evaluation and the Health Professions, 31(3): 313-317. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163278708320204
Nussbaum, A.D., & Dweck, C.S. (2008). Defensiveness versus remediation: Self-theories and modes of self-esteem maintenance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(5): 599-612. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167207312960
Orlofsky, J.L., Cohen, R.S., & Ramsden, M.W. (1985). Relationship between sex-role attitudes and personality traits and the revised sex-role behavior scale. Sex Roles, 12(3-4): 377-391. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00287603
Pachankis, J.E., & Goldfried, M.R. (2006). Social anxiety in young homosexual men. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 20(8): 996- 1015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.01.001
Pachankis, J.E., & Hatzenbuehler, M.L. (2013). The social development of contingent self-worth in sexual minority young men: An empirical investigation of the “Best Little Boy in the World” hypothesis. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 35(2): 176-190. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2013.764304
Qi, R., Palmier‐Claus, J., Simpson, J., Varese, F., & Bentall, R. (2020). Sexual minority status and symptoms of psychosis: The role of bullying, discrimination, social support, and drug use-findings from the Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey 2007. Psychology and Psychotherapy, 93(3): 503-519. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12242
Rowen, C.J., & Malcolm, J.P. (2003). Correlates of internalized homophobia and homosexual identity formation in a sample of homosexual men. Journal of Homosexuality, 43(2): 77-92. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v43n02_05
Rubinstein, G. (2010). Narcissism and self-esteem among homosexual and heterosexual male students. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 36(1): 24-34. https://doi.org/10.1080/00926230903375594
Safren, S.A., & Pantalone, D. (2006). Social anxiety and barriers to resilience in lesbian, gay, and bisexual adolescents. In: Omoto, A.M., & Kurtzman, H. (eds.). Sexual Orientation and Mental Health: Examining Identity and Development in Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual People. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, p.55-71.
Shafiei, F., & Ghodusi, A. (2019). The role of personality traits and social skills in the prediction of the domestic violence of couples. Rooyesh, 8(10): 89-96. [Article in Persian].
Shakib, S.M.P. (2021). Comparison of Personality Traits, Personal Values and Attachment Styles in Male Homosexuals with Different Sex-roles. Master Thesis, University of Guilan. [In Persian] Available from: https://ganj.irandoc.ac.ir/#/ articles/cf5ef537f86def543cfb2f01879e45ea
Swift-Gallant, A., Coome, L.A., Monks, D.A., & VanderLaan, D.P. (2018). Gender nonconformity and birth order in relation to anal sex role among homosexual men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47(4): 1041-1052. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-017-0980-y
Tapınç, H. (1992). Masculinity, femininity, and Turkish male homosexuality. In: Plummer, K. (ed.). Modern Homosexualities: Fragments of Lesbian and Gay Experience. New York: Routledge, p.39-49.
Ungerleider, R.M., & Ungerleider, J.D. (2019). Whole brain leadership for creating resonant multidisciplinary health care teams. The Annals of Thoracic Surgery, 108(4): 978-986. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.athoracsur.2019.03.037
Van der Kaap-Deeder, J., Wouters, S., Verschueren, K., Briers, V., Deeren, B., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2016). The pursuit of self-esteem and its motivational implications. Psychologica Belgica, 56(2): 143-168. https://doi.org/10.5334/pb.277
Wegesin, D.J., & Meyer-Bahlburg, H.F.L. (2000). Top/bottom self-label, anal sex practices, HIV risk and gender role identity in gay men in New York city. Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, 12(3): 43-62. https://doi.org/10.1300/J056v12n03_03
Yelland, C., & Tiggemann, M. (2003). Muscularity and the gay ideal: Body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in homosexual men. Eating Behaviors, 4(2): 107-116. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1471-0153(03)00014-X
Zheng, L., Hart, T.A., & Zheng, Y. (2012). The relationship between intercourse preference positions and personality traits among gay men in China. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41: 683-689. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-011-9819-0