Regulatory mechanisms of the hypoxia microenvironment on the function and stability of regulatory T cells in autoimmune diseases
Hypoxia is a common metabolic characteristic in inflammatory tissues, which regulates the phenotype and function of immune cells mainly through hypoxia-inducible factors. Hypoxia-related immunoregulation is critical in the pathogenesis and development of various diseases, especially in autoimmune diseases. Continuous imbalance of oxygen supply and demand can promote vascular dysfunction, chronic inflammation, and tissue damage. Accumulating evidence shows that hypoxia is not merely a passive result of inflammation, but an active microenvironmental factor that can drive immune reprogramming. Therefore, research on hypoxia-mediated immunoregulation has expanded from an early focus on angiogenesis and inflammatory mediators to a systematic one on the phenotypic and functional stability of immune cells. In autoimmune diseases, hypoxia mostly induces metabolic reprogramming in immune cells. It significantly alters their phenotype, metabolic pathways, and cell function, skewing them toward a pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory phenotype. Based on experimental data, targeting the hypoxia signaling pathway and the related immune metabolism axis represents a promising treatment strategy. This review focuses on the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which the hypoxic microenvironment influences regulatory T cells (Tregs). We also discuss how hypoxia-related pathways affect the differentiation, stability, metabolism, and function of Tregs, and summarize their role in typical autoimmune diseases. Finally, we discuss the focus on the potential treatment targets and strategies emerging in this field. A deep understanding of the mechanism of their interaction may provide a theoretical basis for the development of targeted treatments for autoimmune diseases.
Angelin, A., Gil-de-Gómez, L., Dahiya, S., et al. (2017). Foxp3 Reprograms T Cell Metabolism to Function in Low- Glucose, High-Lactate Environments. Cell Metabolism, 25(6), 1282–1293.e1287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2016.12.018
Barile, R., Rotondo, C., Rella, V., Trotta, A., Cantatore, F. P., & Corrado, A. (2025). Fibrosis mechanisms in systemic sclerosis and new potential therapies. Postgraduate Medical Journal, 101(1198), 680–689. https://doi.org/10.1093/postmj/qgae169
Barturen, G., Beretta, L., Cervera, R., Van Vollenhoven, R., & Alarcón-Riquelme, M. E. (2018). Moving towards a molecular taxonomy of autoimmune rheumatic diseases. Nature Reviews Rheumatology 14(2), 75–93. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrrheum.2017.220
Bi, X., Guo, X. H., Mo, B. Y., et al. (2019). LncRNA PICSAR promotes cell proliferation, migration and invasion of fibroblast-like synoviocytes by sponging miRNA-4701-5p in rheumatoid arthritis. eBioMedicine, 50, 408–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2019.11.024
Bluestone, J. A., Burnett, B. K., Crute, C. E., et al. (2025). Regulatory T cell therapies to treat autoimmune diseases and transplant rejection. Nature Immunology, 26(6), 819– 824. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41590-025-02154-2
Breedveld, F. C., Weisman, M. H., Kavanaugh, A. F., et al. (2006). The PREMIER study: A multicenter, randomized, double-blind clinical trial of combination therapy with adalimumab plus methotrexate versus methotrexate alone or adalimumab alone in patients with early, aggressive rheumatoid arthritis who had not had previous methotrexate treatment. Arthritis & Rheumatology, 54(1), 26–37. https://doi.org/10.1002/art.21519
Burchill, M. A., Yang, J., Vogtenhuber, C., Blazar, B. R., & Farrar, M. A. (2007). IL-2 receptor beta-dependent STAT5 activation is required for the development of Foxp3+ regulatory T cells. Journal of Immunology 178(1), 280–290. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.178.1.280
Chen, P. M., Wilson, P. C., Shyer, J. A., et al. (2020). Kidney tissue hypoxia dictates T cell-mediated injury in murine lupus nephritis. Science Translational Medicine, 12(538). https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.aay1620
Chen, Z., Barbi, J., Bu, S., et al. (2013). The ubiquitin ligase Stub1 negatively modulates regulatory T cell suppressive activity by promoting degradation of the transcription factor Foxp3. Immunity, 39(2), 272–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2013.08.006
Chotiyarnwong, P., & McCloskey, E. V. (2020). Pathogenesis of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis and options for treatment. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 16(8), 437–447. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-020-0341-0
Coelho, S. N., Saleem, S., Konieczny, B. T., Parekh, K. R., Baddoura, F. K., & Lakkis, F. G. (1997). Immunologic determinants of susceptibility to experimental glomerulonephritis: role of cellular immunity. Kidney International, 51(3), 646–652. https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.1997.94
Corcoran, S. E., & O’Neill, L. A. (2016). HIF1α and metabolic reprogramming in inflammation. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 126(10), 3699–3707. https://doi.org/10.1172/jci84431
Cronstein, B. N., & Aune, T. M. (2020). Methotrexate and its mechanisms of action in inflammatory arthritis. Nature Reviews Rheumatology 16(3), 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41584-020-0373-9
Crosby, M. E., Kulshreshtha, R., Ivan, M., & Glazer, P. M. (2009). MicroRNA regulation of DNA repair gene expression in hypoxic stress. Cancer Research, 69(3), 1221–1229. https://doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.Can-08-2516
Daamen, A. R., Wang, H., Bachali, P., et al. (2023). Molecular mechanisms governing the progression of nephritis in lupus prone mice and human lupus patients. Frontiers in Immunology, 14, 1147526. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2023.1147526
Dang, E. V., Barbi, J., Yang, H. Y., et al. (2011). Control of T(H)17/ T(reg) balance by hypoxia-inducible factor 1. Cell, 146(5), 772–784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2011.07.033
Emery, P., Keystone, E., Tony, H. P., et al. (2008). IL-6 receptor inhibition with tocilizumab improves treatment outcomes in patients with rheumatoid arthritis refractory to anti-tumour necrosis factor biologicals: results from a 24-week multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, 67(11), 1516–1523. https://doi.org/10.1136/ard.2008.092932
Fanouriakis, A., Kostopoulou, M., Alunno, A., et al. (2019). 2019 update of the EULAR recommendations for the management of systemic lupus erythematosus. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, 78(6), 736–745. https://doi.org/10.1136/annrheumdis-2019-215089
Fava, R. A., Olsen, N. J., Spencer-Green, G., et al. (1994). Vascular permeability factor/endothelial growth factor (VPF/VEGF): accumulation and expression in human synovial fluids and rheumatoid synovial tissue. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 180(1), 341–346. https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.180.1.341
Fearon, U., Canavan, M., Biniecka, M., & Veale, D. J. (2016). Hypoxia, mitochondrial dysfunction and synovial invasiveness in rheumatoid arthritis. Nature Reviews Rheumatology 12(7), 385–397. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrrheum.2016.69
Fearon, U., Hanlon, M. M., Floudas, A., & Veale, D. J. (2022). Cellular metabolic adaptations in rheumatoid arthritis and their therapeutic implications. Nature Reviews Rheumatology 18(7), 398–414. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41584-022-00771-x
Feldhoff, L. M., Rueda, C. M., Moreno-Fernandez, M. E., et al. (2017). IL-1β induced HIF-1α inhibits the differentiation of human FOXP3(+) T cells. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 465. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-00508-x
Fernandez, D., & Perl, A. (2009). Metabolic control of T cell activation and death in SLE. Autoimmunity Reviews, 8(3), 184–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autrev.2008.07.041
Fugger, L., Jensen, L. T., & Rossjohn, J. (2020). Challenges, Progress, and Prospects of Developing Therapies to Treat Autoimmune Diseases. Cell, 181(1), 63–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.03.007
Gao, Y., Tang, J., Chen, W., et al. (2015). Inflammation negatively regulates FOXP3 and regulatory T-cell function via DBC1. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 112(25), E3246–3254. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1421463112
Geis, L., & Kurtz, A. (2025). Oxygen sensing in the kidney. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, 40(3), 446–454. https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfae225
Gergely, P., Jr., Grossman, C., Niland, B., et al. (2002). Mitochondrial hyperpolarization and ATP depletion in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis & Rheumatology, 46(1), 175–190. https://doi.org/10.1002/1529-0131(200201)46:1<175::Aid-art10015>3.0.Co;2-h
Goldmann, O., Nwofor, O. V., Chen, Q., & Medina, E. (2024). Mechanisms underlying immunosuppression by regulatory cells. Frontiers in Immunology, 15, 1328193. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2024.1328193
Guo, X., & Chen, G. (2020). Hypoxia-Inducible Factor Is Critical for Pathogenesis and Regulation of Immune Cell Functions in Rheumatoid Arthritis. Frontiers in Immunology, 11, 1668. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.01668
Hardy, R. S., Raza, K., & Cooper, M. S. (2020). Therapeutic glucocorticoids: mechanisms of actions in rheumatic diseases. Nature Reviews Rheumatology 16(3), 133–144. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41584-020-0371-y
Härm, J., Fan, Y. T., & Brenner, D. (2025). Navigating the metabolic landscape of regulatory T cells: from autoimmune diseases to tumor microenvironments. Current Opinion in Immunology, 92, 102511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coi.2024.102511
He, X., Shi, Y., Zeng, Z., et al. (2022). Intimate intertwining of the pathogenesis of hypoxia and systemic sclerosis: A transcriptome integration analysis. Frontiers in Immunology, 13, 929289. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.929289
Horwitz, D. A., Zheng, S. G., & Gray, J. D. (2003). The role of the combination of IL-2 and TGF-beta or IL-10 in the generation and function of CD4+ CD25+ and CD8+ regulatory T cell subsets. Journal of Leukocyte Biology, 74(4), 471–478. https://doi.org/10.1189/jlb.0503228
Hsiao, H. W., Hsu, T. S., Liu, W. H., et al. (2015). Deltex1 antagonizes HIF-1α and sustains the stability of regulatory T cells in vivo. Nature Communications, 6, 6353. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms7353
Hsu, T. S., Lin, Y. L., Wang, Y. A., et al. (2020). HIF-2α is indispensable for regulatory T cell function. Nature Communications, 11(1), 5005. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18731-y
Khailaie, S., Rowshanravan, B., Robert, P. A., et al. (2018). Characterization of CTLA4 Trafficking and Implications for Its Function. Biophysical Journal, 115(7), 1330–1343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpj.2018.08.020
Kim, J. W., Tchernyshyov, I., Semenza, G. L., & Dang, C. V. (2006). HIF-1-mediated expression of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase: a metabolic switch required for cellular adaptation to hypoxia. Cell Metabolism, 3(3), 177–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2006.02.002
Kim, Y. I., Yi, E. J., Kim, Y. D., et al. (2020). Local Stabilization of Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-1α Controls Intestinal Inflammation via Enhanced Gut Barrier Function and Immune Regulation. Frontiers in Immunology, 11, 609689. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.609689
Klareskog, L., van der Heijde, D., de Jager, J. P., et al. (2004). Therapeutic effect of the combination of etanercept and methotrexate compared with each treatment alone in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: double-blind randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 363(9410), 675–681. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(04)15640-7
Koch, A. E., Harlow, L. A., Haines, G. K., et al. (1994). Vascular endothelial growth factor. A cytokine modulating endothelial function in rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of Immunology 152(8), 4149–4156. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.152.8.4149
Kubo, S., Nakayamada, S., Sakata, K., et al. (2018). Janus Kinase Inhibitor Baricitinib Modulates Human Innate and Adaptive Immune System. Frontiers in Immunology, 9, 1510. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.01510
Kurata, Y., Tanaka, T., & Nangaku, M. (2020). The role of hypoxia in the pathogenesis of lupus nephritis. Kidney International, 98(4), 821–823. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kint.2020.06.008
Lam, A. J., Lin, D. T. S., Gillies, J. K., et al. (2021). Optimized CRISPR-mediated gene knockin reveals FOXP3- independent maintenance of human Treg identity. Cell Reports, 36(5), 109494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109494
Lantz, B. J., Moriwaki, M., Oyebamiji, O. M., Guo, Y., & Gonzalez Bosc, L. (2023). Chronic hypoxia disrupts T regulatory cell phenotype contributing to the emergence of exTreg-T(H)17 cells. Frontiers in Physiology, 14, 1304732. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2023.1304732
Lee, G. R. (2018). The Balance of Th17 versus Treg Cells in Autoimmunity. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 19(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19030730
Lee, P., Chandel, N. S., & Simon, M. C. (2020). Cellular adaptation to hypoxia through hypoxia inducible factors and beyond. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, 21(5), 268–283. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41580-020-0227-y
Lee, Y. A., Choi, H. M., Lee, S. H., et al. (2012). Hypoxia differentially affects IL-1β-stimulated MMP-1 and MMP- 13 expression of fibroblast-like synoviocytes in an HIF-1α- dependent manner. Rheumatology, 51(3), 443–450. https://doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/ker327
Levescot, A., Chang, M. H., Schnell, J., et al. (2021). IL-1β-driven osteoclastogenic Tregs accelerate bone erosion in arthritis. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 131(18). https://doi.org/10.1172/jci141008
Li, W., Deng, C., Yang, H., & Wang, G. (2019). The Regulatory T Cell in Active Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Patients: A Systemic Review and Meta-Analysis. Frontiers in Immunology, 10, 159. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2019.00159
Lu, L., Wang, J., Zhang, F., et al. (2010). Role of SMAD and non- SMAD signals in the development of Th17 and regulatory T cells. Journal of Immunology 184(8), 4295–4306. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.0903418
Ludwig, R. J., Vanhoorelbeke, K., Leypoldt, F., et al. (2017). Mechanisms of Autoantibody-Induced Pathology. Frontiers in Immunology, 8, 603. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2017.00603
MacDonald, K. G., Dawson, N. A. J., Huang, Q., Dunne, J. V., Levings, M. K., & Broady, R. (2015). Regulatory T cells produce profibrotic cytokines in the skin of patients with systemic sclerosis. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 135(4), 946–955.e949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2014.12.1932
Maciejewska, M., Sikora, M., Stec, A., et al. (2023). Hypoxia- Inducible Factor-1α (HIF-1α) as a Biomarker for Changes in Microcirculation in Individuals with Systemic Sclerosis. Dermatology and Therapy, 13(7), 1549–1560. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13555-023-00952-w
Manetti, M., Romano, E., Rosa, I., et al. (2017). Endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition contributes to endothelial dysfunction and dermal fibrosis in systemic sclerosis. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, 76(5), 924–934. https://doi.org/10.1136/annrheumdis-2016-210229
Mao, J., Liu, J., Zhou, M., Wang, G., Xiong, X., & Deng, Y. (2022). Hypoxia-induced interstitial transformation of microvascular endothelial cells by mediating HIF-1α/VEGF signaling in systemic sclerosis. PLoS ONE, 17(3), e0263369. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263369
McGettrick, A. F., & O’Neill, L. A. J. (2020). The Role of HIF in Immunity and Inflammation. Cell Metabolism, 32(4), 524– 536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2020.08.002
Mellor-Pita, S., Citores, M. J., Castejon, R., et al. (2006). Decrease of regulatory T cells in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, 65(4), 553–554. https://doi.org/10.1136/ard.2005.044974
Melville, A. R., Kearsley-Fleet, L., Buch, M. H., & Hyrich, K. L. (2020). Understanding Refractory Rheumatoid Arthritis: Implications for a Therapeutic Approach. Drugs, 80(9), 849–857. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40265-020-01309-9
Michalek, R. D., Gerriets, V. A., Jacobs, S. R., et al. (2011). Cutting edge: distinct glycolytic and lipid oxidative metabolic programs are essential for effector and regulatory CD4+ T cell subsets. Journal of Immunology 186(6), 3299–3303. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.1003613
Minisini, M., Cricchi, E., & Brancolini, C. (2023). Acetylation and Phosphorylation in the Regulation of Hypoxia- Inducible Factor Activities: Additional Options to Modulate Adaptations to Changes in Oxygen Levels. Life, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/life14010020
Miska, J., Lee-Chang, C., Rashidi, A., et al. (2022). HIF-1α Is a Metabolic Switch Between Glycolytic-Driven Migration and Oxidative Phosphorylation-Driven Immunosuppression of Tregs in Glioblastoma. Cell Reports, 39(10), 110934. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2022.110934
Muniz Caldas, C. A., & Freire de Carvalho, J. (2012). The role of environmental factors in the pathogenesis of non-organ-specific autoimmune diseases. Best Practice & Research: Clinical Rheumatology, 26(1), 5–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.berh.2012.01.010
Ningoo, M., Fueyo-González, F., Gisbert-Vilanova, C., Espinar- Barranco, L., Marjanovic, N., & Fribourg, M. (2025). Interferon-β and interleukin-6 exert opposing effects on Foxp3 acetylation to control regulatory T cell induction. Frontiers in Immunology, 16, 1593931. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2025.1593931
Nishioku, T., Nakao, S., Anzai, R., et al. (2025). HIF-1α stabilization in osteoclasts induces the expression of aerobic glycolysis-related proteins GLUT1, LDHA, and MCT4. Journal of Pharmacological Sciences, 158(4), 336–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphs.2025.05.017
Nygaard, G., & Firestein, G. S. (2020). Restoring synovial homeostasis in rheumatoid arthritis by targeting fibroblast-like synoviocytes. Nature Reviews Rheumatology 16(6), 316–333. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41584-020-0413-5
Parab, A., & Bhatt, L. K. (2024). T-cell metabolism in rheumatoid arthritis: focus on mitochondrial and lysosomal dysfunction. Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology, 46(3), 378– 384. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923973.2024.2330645
Paradowska-Gorycka, A., Wajda, A., Romanowska-Próchnicka, K., et al. (2020). Th17/Treg-Related Transcriptional Factor Expression and Cytokine Profile in Patients With Rheumatoid Arthritis. Frontiers in Immunology, 11, 572858. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.572858
Park, D. Y., Kim, C. H., Park, D. Y., Kim, H. J., & Cho, H. J. (2024). Intermittent hypoxia induces Th17/Treg imbalance in a murine model of obstructive sleep apnea. PLoS ONE, 19(6), e0305230. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305230
Patnaik, E., Lyons, M., Tran, K., & Pattanaik, D. (2023). Endothelial Dysfunction in Systemic Sclerosis. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(18). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241814385
Perera, L. M. B., Sekiguchi, A., Uchiyama, A., et al. (2019). The Regulation of Skin Fibrosis in Systemic Sclerosis by Extracellular ATP via P2Y(2) Purinergic Receptor. Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 139(4), 890–899. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jid.2018.10.027
Potempa, J., Mydel, P., & Koziel, J. (2017). The case for periodontitis in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. Nature Reviews Rheumatology 13(10), 606–620. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrrheum.2017.132
Qiu, R., Zhou, L., Ma, Y., et al. (2020). Regulatory T Cell Plasticity and Stability and Autoimmune Diseases. Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology, 58(1), 52–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12016-018-8721-0
Qureshi, O. S., Zheng, Y., Nakamura, K., et al. (2011). Trans-endocytosis of CD80 and CD86: a molecular basis for the cell-extrinsic function of CTLA-4. Science, 332(6029), 600– 603. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1202947
Richter, P., Rezus, C., Burlui, A. M., Schreiner, T. G., & Rezus, E. (2025). Serum Interleukin-6 in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: Insights into Immune Dysregulation, Disease Activity, and Clinical Manifestations. Cells, 14(19). https://doi.org/10.3390/cells14191568
Romano, E., Rosa, I., Fioretto, B. S., & Manetti, M. (2024). Recent Insights into Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Defective Angiogenesis in Systemic Sclerosis. Biomedicines, 12(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines12061331
Ryu, J. H., Chae, C. S., Kwak, J. S., et al. (2014). Hypoxia-inducible factor-2α is an essential catabolic regulator of inflammatory rheumatoid arthritis. PLOS Biology, 12(6), e1001881. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001881
Sadiku, P., & Walmsley, S. R. (2019). Hypoxia and the regulation of myeloid cell metabolic imprinting: consequences for the inflammatory response. EMBO Reports, 20(5). https://doi.org/10.15252/embr.201847388
Schrezenmeier, E., & Dörner, T. (2020). Mechanisms of action of hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine: implications for rheumatology. Nature Reviews Rheumatology 16(3), 155– 166. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41584-020-0372-x
Semenza, G. L., Agani, F., Booth, G., et al. (1997). Structural and functional analysis of hypoxia-inducible factor 1. Kidney International, 51(2), 553–555. https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.1997.77
Semenza, G. L., Jiang, B. H., Leung, S. W., et al. (1996). Hypoxia response elements in the aldolase A, enolase 1, and lactate dehydrogenase A gene promoters contain essential binding sites for hypoxia-inducible factor 1. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 271(51), 32529–32537. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.271.51.32529
Shevach, E. M. (2009). Mechanisms of foxp3+ T regulatory cell-mediated suppression. Immunity, 30(5), 636–645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2009.04.010
Szekanecz, Z., Buch, M. H., Charles-Schoeman, C., et al. (2024). Efficacy and safety of JAK inhibitors in rheumatoid arthritis: update for the practising clinician. Nature Reviews Rheumatology, 20(2), 101–115. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41584-023-01062-9
Tanaka, T., & Nangaku, M. (2010). The role of hypoxia, increased oxygen consumption, and hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha in progression of chronic kidney disease. Current Opinion in Nephrology and Hypertension, 19(1), 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1097/MNH.0b013e3283328eed
Tang, Y. Y., Wang, D. C., Wang, Y. Q., Huang, A. F., & Xu, W. D. (2022). Emerging role of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α in inflammatory autoimmune diseases: A comprehensive review. Frontiers in Immunology, 13, 1073971. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.1073971
Taylor, C. T., & Colgan, S. P. (2017). Regulation of immunity and inflammation by hypoxia in immunological niches. Nature Reviews Immunology, 17(12), 774–785. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri.2017.103
Taylor, C. T., & Scholz, C. C. (2022). The effect of HIF on metabolism and immunity. Nature Reviews Nephrology, 18(9), 573–587. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41581-022-00587-8
Tone, Y., Furuuchi, K., Kojima, Y., Tykocinski, M. L., Greene, M. I., & Tone, M. (2008). Smad3 and NFAT cooperate to induce Foxp3 expression through its enhancer. Nature Immunology, 9(2), 194–202. https://doi.org/10.1038/ni1549
van Loosdregt, J., Brunen, D., Fleskens, V., Pals, C. E., Lam, E. W., & Coffer, P. J. (2011). Rapid temporal control of Foxp3 protein degradation by sirtuin-1. PLoS ONE, 6(4), e19047. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0019047
Wang, G. L., & Semenza, G. L. (1995). Purification and characterization of hypoxia-inducible factor 1. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 270(3), 1230–1237. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.270.3.1230
Wang, L., Wang, F. S., & Gershwin, M. E. (2015). Human autoimmune diseases: a comprehensive update. Journal of Internal Medicine, 278(4), 369–395. https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.12395
Wei, J., Long, L., Yang, K., et al. (2016). Autophagy enforces functional integrity of regulatory T cells by coupling environmental cues and metabolic homeostasis. Nature Immunology, 17(3), 277–285. https://doi.org/10.1038/ni.3365
Wing, K., Onishi, Y., Prieto-Martin, P., et al. (2008). CTLA-4 control over Foxp3+ regulatory T cell function. Science, 322(5899), 271–275. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1160062
Xiang, H., Tao, Y., Jiang, Z., et al. (2022). Vps33B controls Treg cell suppressive function through inhibiting lysosomal nutrient sensing complex-mediated mTORC1 activation. Cell Reports, 39(11), 110943. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2022.110943
Xu, L., Kitani, A., Fuss, I., & Strober, W. (2007). Cutting edge: regulatory T cells induce CD4+CD25-Foxp3- T cells or are self-induced to become Th17 cells in the absence of exogenous TGF-beta. Journal of Immunology 178(11), 6725– 6729. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.178.11.6725
Yan, S., Kotschenreuther, K., Deng, S., & Kofler, D. M. (2022). Regulatory T cells in rheumatoid arthritis: functions, development, regulation, and therapeutic potential. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences, 79(10), 533. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-022-04563-0
Yang, L., & Zheng, S. G. (2025). Role of regulatory T cells in inflammatory liver diseases. Autoimmunity Reviews, 24(6), 103806. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autrev.2025.103806
Yeh, T. L., Leissing, T. M., Abboud, M. I., et al. (2017). Molecular and cellular mechanisms of HIF prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors in clinical trials. Chemical Science, 8(11), 7651–7668. https://doi.org/10.1039/c7sc02103h
Zanin-Silva, D. C., Santana-Gonçalves, M., Kawashima- Vasconcelos, M. Y., & Oliveira, M. C. (2021). Management of Endothelial Dysfunction in Systemic Sclerosis: Current and Developing Strategies. Frontiers in Medicine, 8, 788250. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2021.788250
Zeng, H., & Chi, H. (2017). mTOR signaling in the differentiation and function of regulatory and effector T cells. Current Opinion in Immunology, 46, 103–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coi.2017.04.005
Zhang, R., Miao, J., Zhang, K., et al. (2022). Th1-Like Treg Cells Are Increased But Deficient in Function in Rheumatoid Arthritis. Frontiers in Immunology, 13, 863753. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.863753
Zhang, X., Olsen, N., & Zheng, S. G. (2020). The progress and prospect of regulatory T cells in autoimmune diseases. Journal of Autoimmunity, 111, 102461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaut.2020.102461
Zhao, M., Wang, L. T., Liang, G. P., et al. (2014). Up-regulation of microRNA-210 induces immune dysfunction via targeting FOXP3 in CD4(+) T cells of psoriasis vulgaris. Clinical Immunology, 150(1), 22–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clim.2013.10.009
Zhao, X., Zhang, J., Li, C., et al. (2025). Mitochondrial mechanisms in Treg cell regulation: Implications for immunotherapy and disease treatment. Mitochondrion, 80, 101975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mito.2024.101975
Zheng, S. G., Wang, J., & Horwitz, D. A. (2008). Cutting edge: Foxp3+CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells induced by IL-2 and TGF-beta are resistant to Th17 conversion by IL-6. Journal of Immunology 180(11), 7112–7116. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.180.11.7112
Zheng, S. G., Wang, J. H., Gray, J. D., Soucier, H., & Horwitz, D. A. (2004). Natural and induced CD4+CD25+ cells educate CD4+CD25- cells to develop suppressive activity: the role of IL-2, TGF-beta, and IL-10. Journal of Immunology 172(9), 5213–5221. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.172.9.5213
Zhu, X., Jiang, L., Wei, X., Long, M., & Du, Y. (2022). Roxadustat: Not just for anemia. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 13, 971795. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.971795
Zou, Y., Xu, S., Xiao, Y., et al. (2018). Long noncoding RNA LERFS negatively regulates rheumatoid synovial aggression and proliferation. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 128(10), 4510–4524. https://doi.org/10.1172/jci97965
