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REVIEW ARTICLE

Gut dysbiosis in Parkinson’s disease: A systematic review of human studies

Arberesha Bexheti-Ferati1 ,  Kenan Ferati1 ,  Alessio Danilo Inchingolo2 ,  Grazia Marinelli2 ,  Paola Bassi2 ,  Rosalba Lagioia2 ,  Antonio Rizzo2 ,  Francesco Inchingolo2 ,  Franceska Vinjolli3 ,  Andrea Palermo4 ,  Ioana Roxana Bordea5* ,  Cinzia Maspero6,7 ,  Giuseppe Minervini8* ,  Angelo Michele Inchingolo2,6 ,  Gianna Dipalma2,6
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1 Faculty of Medicine, University of Tetovo, Tetovo, Polog Region, North Macedonia
2 Department of Interdisciplinary Medicine, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, Bari, Puglia Region, Italy
3 Department of Medical Sciences, Catholic University “Our Lady of Good Counsel”, Tirana, Albania
4 Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Salento, Lecce, Italy
5 Department of Oral Rehabilitation, Faculty of Dentistry, Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Transylvania, Romania
6 Department of Biomedical, Surgical and Dental Sciences, Milan University, Milan, Italy
7 Cà Granda Scientific Institute for Research, Hospitalization, and Healthcare, Major Policlinic Hospital, Milan, Italy
8 Multidisciplinary Department of Medical-Surgical and Odontostomatological Specialties, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Naples, Italy
EJMO, 025510527 https://doi.org/10.36922/EJMO025510527
Received: 17 December 2025 | Revised: 21 January 2026 | Accepted: 31 January 2026 | Published online: 23 April 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution -Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC-by the license) ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ )
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Abstract

Introduction: Parkinson’s disease (PD) is increasingly correlated to gastrointestinal disturbances and intestinal microbiota alterations. Growing evidence suggests that shifts in gut microbial communities may influence immune activation and metabolic pathways relevant to PD.

Objective: This systematic review examines microbial changes in PD and their clinical relevance.

Methods: A systematic search of PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science identified 819 records. After removing duplicates and screening, 521 full-text articles were evaluated. Ten studies met the inclusion criteria, focusing on human subjects and original data on gut microbiota composition, function, or modulation in PD.

Results: The microbiome profile most frequently reported in PD includes a drop in overall diversity and in bacterial taxa associated with short-chain fatty acid production, alongside a shift toward taxa commonly associated with inflammatory states (e.g., Enterobacteriaceae). Most studies reported associations between dysbiosis and motor severity, constipation, autonomic dysfunction, and neuropsychiatric symptoms. Interventions such as resistant starch supplementation and acupuncture improved microbial profiles and some clinical outcomes. Machine-learning approaches showed promising diagnostic potential based on microbial signatures.

Conclusions: Gut dysbiosis is significantly associated with PD clinical features. Although early evidence suggests potential therapeutic and diagnostic applications, methodological heterogeneity and small sample sizes highlight the need for standardized, longitudinal research.

Keywords
Parkinson’s disease
Gut microbiota
Gut–brain axis
Neuroinflammation
α-synuclein
Probiotics
Fecal microbiota transplantation
Funding
None.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare they have no competing interests.
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Eurasian Journal of Medicine and Oncology, Electronic ISSN: 2587-196X Print ISSN: 2587-2400, Published by AccScience Publishing
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