AccScience Publishing / JES / Online First / DOI: 10.36922/JES026040002
PERSPECTIVE ARTICLE

Multi-battery vehicles display energy advantages

Kevin Kendall1*
Show Less
1 HydrogenUnited.org, 56 Harborne Road, Edgbaston, West Midlands B15 3HE, United Kingdom
Received: 22 January 2026 | Revised: 16 February 2026 | Accepted: 5 March 2026 | Published online: 12 May 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )
Abstract

The objective of this paper is to show that electric vehicles are now using several batteries to improve performance. First, the confusion surrounding fuel cells (FCs) in electric vehicles is addressed to emphasize that an FC is a battery, despite having a different name. William Grove first named the FC in 1839 as a ‘gas battery’. The research methodology starts with existing vehicle designs that show better behavior than the Tesla-X because they use two or three different batteries with differing advantages. Comparison with standard single battery vehicles shows that further advances might be made. Discussion analysis shows that Asian manufacturers are installing several batteries in buses and trucks which display less weight, good acceleration/braking and longer range. Most battery vehicle literature focuses on a single battery type, such as lithium, but new references show this is changing as charging infrastructure becomes critical in many countries. The key research finding is that new multi-battery electric vehicles are emerging, just as multi-computer vehicles have become normal since 1970.

Keywords
Multiple batteries
Hydrogen fuel cell
Efficiency comparison
Infrastructure challenges
Lithium battery
Lead acid battery
Improved performance
Low weight
Rapid filling
Long range
Funding
None.
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest.
References
  1. Wang Y. China’s Electric Vehicle Market: Issues and Solutions. SHS Web Conf. 2024;208:02014. doi: 10.1051/shsconf/202420802014.
  2. Kendall K. Low Carbon Integrated Vehicles and Buildings. Mech Eng Adv. 2024;1:282. doi: 10.59400/mea.v2i1.282
  3. Iftikhar F. The electric vehicles boom in China: From Policy to global market dominance. Pakistan Research Centre for a Community with shared future, Communication University of China. 2025. Available from: https://www.prccsf.com/ paper/pdf/The-Electric-Vehicles-Boom-in-China.pdf [Last accessed on April 30, 2026].
  4. Corrigan DA. Electric vehicle batteries: past, present and future. Electrochem Soc Interface. 2022;31(3):63-68. doi: 10.1149/2.F09223IF
  5. Liu WA, Placke T, Chau KT. Overview of batteries and battery management for electric vehicles. Energy Rep. 2022;8:4058-4084. doi: 10.1016/j.egyr.2022.03.016.
  6. Global Battery Alliance. A Vision for a Sustainable Battery Value Chain in 2030: Unlocking the Full Potential to Power Sustainable Development and Climate Change Mitigation. World Economic Forum, Geneva. 2019.
  7. Emrani A, Berrada A. A comprehensive review on techno-economic assessment of hybrid energy storage systems integrated with renewable energy. J Energy Storage. 2024;84:111010. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2024.111010
  8. Olabi AG, Abbas Q, Shinde PA, Abdelkareem MA. Rechargeable batteries: Technological advancement, challenges, current and emerging applications. Energy 2023;266:126408. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2022.126408
  9. Lopes PP, Stamenkovic VR. Past, present, and future of lead–acid batteries. Science. 2020;369(6506):923-924. doi: 10.1126/science.abd3352
  10. Yudhistira R, Khatiwada D, Sanchez F. A comparative life cycle assessment of lithium-ion and lead-acid batteries for grid energy storage. J Clean Prod. 2022;358:131999. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131999
  11. Ralls AM, Leong K, Clayton J, et al. The Role of Lithium- Ion Batteries in the Growing Trend of Electric Vehicles. Materials. 2023;16(17):6063 doi:10.3390/ma16176063
  12. Amli H, Booth M, Dhanak V, Ahmed W. Recent developments in battery technologies. In: Emerging Nanotechnologies for Renewable Energy. Elsevier; 2021:517-543. doi: 10.1016/b978-0-12-821346-9.00002-x
  13. Singh PK, Mallick S, Kaur GA, Balayan S, Tiwari A. John B. Goodenough’s pioneering contributions towards advancements in photo-rechargeable lithium batteries. Nano Energy. 2024;128:109792. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.109792
  14. Editorial. Battery revolution to evolution. Nat Energy. 2019;4(11):893-893. doi: 10.1038/s41560-019-0503-2
  15. Kendall K. Hydrogen Energy is here. 2025. Available from: https://www.hydrogenunited.org/ [Last accessed on April 30, 2026].
  16. Smith N. Geoffrey Ballard: Fuel cell visionary. Engineer. 2022;302(7932):54-55. doi: 10.12968/s0013-7758(22)90333-2.
  17. Kendall K, Pollet BG, Dhir A, Staffell I, Millington B, Jostins J. Hydrogen fuel cell hybrid vehicles for Birmingham campus. J Power Sources. 2011;196:325-330. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.12.012.
  18. Staffell I, Kendall K. Lower carbon cars by reducing dissipation in hydrogen hybrids. Int J Low Carbon Technol. 2012;7:10-15. doi: 10.1093/ijlct/ctr022
  19. Kendall K, Shang NJ, Staffell I. Application of Coulomb’s friction law to define energy consumption of new drive-trains. In: Hybrid and Electric Vehicles Conference 2013 (HEVC 2013). Institution of Engineering and Technology. 2013:3.2-3.2. doi: 10.1049/cp.2013.1894
  20. Kendall K. Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in City Transport. Int J Energy Res. 2016;40: 30-35. doi: 10.1002/er.3290
  21. Collins L. Elon Musk is a ‘muppet’ for not believing in hydrogen fuel cells, says Australian iron-ore billionaire Andrew Forrest. Hydrogen Insight. June 13, 2023. Available from: https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/policy/elon-musk-is-a-muppet-for-not-believing-in-hydrogen-fuel-cells-says-australian-iron-ore-billionaire-andrew-forrest/2-1-1466774 [Last accessed on April 30, 2026].
  22. Biogradlija A. Elon Musk reiterates hydrogen fuel skepticism. Energy News. October 7, 2024. Available from: https://energynews.biz/elon-musk-reiterates-hydrogen-fuel-skepticism/ [Last accessed on March 1, 2026].
  23. Alvera M. The hydrogen revolution: A blueprint for the future of clean energy. Basic Books. 2021.
  24. Jacobson MZ. No Miracles Needed: How Today’s Technology Can Save Our Climate and Clean Our Air. Cambridge University Press; 2023. Available from: https://assets.cambridge.org/97810092/49546/ frontmatter/9781009249546_frontmatter.pdf [Last accessed on April 30, 2026]. doi: 10.1017/9781009249553
  25. Agatie C. These are the heaviest EVs on sale in 2024 and GM leads by a margin. Autoevolution. October 5, 2024. Available from: https://www.autoevolution.com/news/ these-are-the-heaviest-evs-on-sale-in-2024-and-gm-leads-by-a-margin-240872.html [Last accessed on April 30, 2026].
  26. DRIVETRIBE. James May reviews his own cars – Tesla Model S vs Toyota Mirai. YouTube. Published 2019. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GaIW5CQQ3Zo [Last accessed on April 30, 2026].
  27. Abdullah. The role of auxiliary batteries in electric vehicles: Powering non-propulsion systems. EVmechanica. August 24, 2024. Available from: https://www.evmechanica.com/the-role-of-auxiliary-batteries-in-electric-vehicles-powering-non-propulsion-systems/ [Last accessed on March 1, 2026].
  28. Kendall K. Economic green hydrogen for UK refueling stations and buildings. Renew Sust Energy. 2023;2024(1):0001. doi: 10.55092/rse20240001
  29. Singh M, Singla MK, Beryozkina S, Gupta J, Safaraliev M. Hydrogen vehicles and hydrogen as a fuel for vehicles: A-State-of-the-Art review. Int J Hydrog Energy. 2024;64:1001-1010. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.03.325
  30. Liu C, Lin H, Shi C, Hu M. Development status and outlook of hydrogen powered fuel cell vehicle market in China. South Energy Constr. 2024;11(2): 162-171. doi: 10.16516/j.ceec.2024.2.16
  31. Li K, Guo ZH. Analysis of hydrogen technologies and application scenarios in transportation sector based on hydrogen energy planning. Automot Digest. 2023;2023(6):37- 42; doi: 10.19822/j.cnki.1671-6329.20220242
  32. Wang C, Zhang S, Wang P, et al. Reversible degradation detection-identification-avoidance and deep learning codriven fuel cell remaining life prediction. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 2025;145:250-266. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2025.05.422
  33. Veza I. Fuel cell thermal management strategies for enhanced performance: Review of Fuel-Cell Thermal Management in Proton-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) and Solid-Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs). Hydrogen. 2025;6(3):65. doi: 10.3390/hydrogen6030065
  34. Li JL, Shao CX, Zhang ZD, Liang ZH, Ceng F. Analysis of hydrogen industry policy and commercialization model. Power Gener Technol. 2023;44(3):287-295. [in Chinese] doi: 10.12096/j.2096-4528.pgt.22185
  35. Jiang Z, Gao X. Quantification and evaluation of China’s hydrogen automobile industry policy. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 2024;56:757-768. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.12.198
  36. Hyundai. Hyundai Motor’s Hydrogen FCEV Cars: Pioneering the Past, Leading the Present, Shaping the Future. Updated 2025. Available from: https://www.hyundai.news/ eu/articles/stories/hyundai-hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars.html [Last accessed on April 30, 2026].
  37. Kendall K. Solving the Conundrum of Battery Electric Cars Versus Hydrogen Electric Vehicles. J Ear Environ Sci Res. 2025;7(6):1-5. doi: 10.47363/JEESR/2025(7)257
Share
Back to top
Journal of Energy and Sustainability, Published by AccScience Publishing