Interleukin-2 Level for Normal People and COVID-19 Infection: Is It Our Concern is COVID-19 Infection or Interleukin-2 Level Before the Infection?
The newly discovered Coronavirus severe acute respiratory distress syndrome virus-19 (SARAS-COV-2, COVID-19) has become a pandemic issue across the globe. Until now, many investigations are taking place to look for specific, safe, and potent anti-viral agents. Upon transmission and entry into the human body, SARS-COV-2 Trigger multiple external players to be involved in the protection against the viral infection. These include Masks, Gloves, Sanitizing and social distancing.
On the other hand, multiple internal body players to be involved in the protection against the viral infection. These include Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors or (ACEI) or Angiotensin receptor blockers or (ARB).
Also, immune players to be involved in the fight against the viral infection. These include Vaccines, plasma from the Recovered patients and cellular immune players such as B, T and natural killer (NK) Cells, as well as the soluble Cytokines and Chemokines. In this review, we will propose the best way to protect ourselves against COVID-19 infection using Interleukin-2, based on evidences we have.
1.Rota PA, Oberste MS, Monroe SS, Nix WA, Campagnoli R, Icenogle JP, et al. Characterization of a novel coronavirus associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome. Science 2003;300:1394–9. [CrossRef]
2. Velavan TP, Meyer CG. The COVID-19 epidemic. Trop Med Int Health 2020;25:278–80. [CrossRef]
3. Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, Hu B, Zhang L, Zhang W, et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature 2020;579:270–3. [CrossRef]
4. GISAID Global Initiative on Sharing All Influenza Data. Phylogeny of SARS- like betacoronaviruses including novelcoronavirus (nCoV). Available at: https://nextstrain.org/groups/blab/ sars-like-cov. Accessed Dec 18, 2020.
5. Wang C, Horby PW, Hayden FG, Gao GF. A novel coronavirus outbreak of global health concern. Lancet 2020;395:470–3. [CrossRef]
6. Manocha S, Walley KR, Russell JA. Severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (SARS): a critical care perspective. Crit Care Med 2003;31:2684–92. [CrossRef]
7. Rothe C, Schunk M, Sothmann P, Bretzel G, Froeschl G, Wallrauch C, et al. Transmission of 2019-nCoV Infection from an Asymptomatic Contact in Germany. N Engl J Med 2020;382:970–1. [CrossRef]
8. Cheng ZJ, Shan J. Novel coronavirus: where we are and what we know. Infection 2019;2020:155–63. [CrossRef]
9. Prabakaran P, Xiao X, Dimitrov DS. A model of the ACE2 structure and function as a SARS-CoV receptor. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004;314:235–41. [CrossRef]
10. Li W, Moore MJ, Vasilieva N, Sui J, Wong SK, Berne MA, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is a functional receptor for the SARS coronavirus. Nature 2003;426:450–4. [CrossRef]
11. Yan R, Zhang Y, Li Y, Xia L, Guo Y, Zhou Q. Structural basis for the recognition of SARS-CoV-2 by full-length human ACE2. Science 2020;367:1444–8. [CrossRef]
12. Buscarini E, Manfredi G, Brambilla G, Menozzi F, Londoni C, Alicante S, et al. GI symptoms as early signs of COVID-19 in hospitalised Italian patients. Gut 2020;69:1547–8. [CrossRef]
13. Guan W, Ni Z, Hu Y, Liang W, Ou C, He J, et al. Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China. N Engl J Med 2020;382:1708–20. [CrossRef]
14. Chen F, Liu ZS, Zhang FR, Xiong RH, Chen Y, Cheng XF, et al. First case of severe childhood novel coronavirus pneumonia in China. [Article in Chinese]. Zhonghua Er Ke Za Zhi 2020;58:E005.
15. Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, Qu J, Gong F, Han Y, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet 2020;395:507–13. [CrossRef]
16. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 2020;395:497–506. [CrossRef]
17. Mehta P, McAuley DF, Brown M, Sanchez E, Tattersall RS, Manson JJ. COVID-19: consider cytokine storm syndromes and immunosuppression. Lancet 2020;395:1033–4. [CrossRef]
18. Cao W, Liu X, Bai T, Fan H, Hong K, Song H, et al. High-Dose Intravenous Immunoglobulin as a Therapeutic Option for Deteriorating Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019. Open Forum Infect Dis 2020;7:ofaa102. [CrossRef]
19. Wang M, Cao R, Zhang L, Yang X, Liu J, Xu M, et al. Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell Res 2020;30:269–71.
20. Chu CM, Cheng VC, Hung IF, Wong MM, Chan KH, Chan KS, et al; HKU/UCH SARS Study Group. Role of lopinavir/ritonavir in the treatment of SARS: initial virological and clinical findings. Thorax 2004;59:252–6. [CrossRef]
21. Stower H. Lopinavir–ritonavir in severe COVID-19. Nat Med 2020;26:465. [CrossRef]
22. Richardson P, Griffin I, Tucker C, Smith D, Oechsle O, Phelan A, et al. Baricitinib as potential treatment for 2019-nCoV acute respiratory disease. Lancet 2020;395:e30–1. [CrossRef]
23. Gaffen SL, Liu KD. Overview of interleukin-2 function, production and clinical applications. Cytokine 2004;28:109–23. [CrossRef]
24. Shankaran V, Ikeda H, Bruce AT, White JM, Swanson PE, Old LJ, et al. IFNgamma and lymphocytes prevent primary tumour development and shape tumour immunogenicity. Nature 2001;410:1107–11. [CrossRef]
25. Salazar-Onfray F, López MN, Mendoza-Naranjo A. Paradoxical effects of cytokines in tumor immune surveillance and tumor immune escape. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2007;18:171–82.
26. Nelson AJ, Staines WR, McIlroy WE. Tactile stimulus predictability modulates activity in a tactile-motor cortical network. Exp Brain Res 2004;154:22–32. [CrossRef]
27. Lenardo MJ. Interleukin-2 programs mouse alpha beta T lymphocytes for apoptosis. Nature 1991;353:858–61. [CrossRef]
28. Sakaguchi S, Yamaguchi T, Nomura T, Ono M. Regulatory T cells and immune tolerance. Cell 2008;133:775–87. [CrossRef]
29. Smith AJ, Humphries SE. Cytokine and cytokine receptor gene polymorphisms and their functionality. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2009;20:43–59. [CrossRef]
30. D'Souza WN, Lefrançois L. IL-2 is not required for the initiation of CD8 T cell cycling but sustains expansion. J Immunol 2003;171:5727–35. [CrossRef]
31. Malek TR, Bayer AL. Tolerance, not immunity, crucially depends on IL-2. Nat Rev Immunol 2004;4:665–74. [CrossRef]
32. Malek TR, Yu A, Zhu L, Matsutani T, Adeegbe D, Bayer AL. IL-2 family of cytokines in T regulatory cell development and homeostasis. J Clin Immunol 2008;28:635–9. [CrossRef]
33. Mok CC, Lau CS. Pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus. J Clin Pathol 2003;56:481–90. [CrossRef]
34. Scheller J, Ohnesorge N, Rose-John S. Interleukin-6 trans-signalling in chronic inflammation and cancer. Scand J Immunol 2006;63:321–9. [CrossRef]
35. Raeburn CD, Sheppard F, Barsness KA, Arya J, Harken AH. Cytokines for surgeons. Am J Surg 2002;183:268–73. [CrossRef]
36. Yu HB, Yurieva M, Balachander A, Foo I, Leong X, Zelante T, et al. NFATc2 mediates epigenetic modification of dendritic cell cytokine and chemokine responses to dectin-1 stimulation. Nucleic Acids Res 2015;43:836–47. [CrossRef]
37. Waxman J, Balkwill F. Interleukin 2. Oxford: Black-well Sci Publ; 1992.
38. Halama N, Zoernig I, Jaeger D. Advanced malignant melanoma: immunologic and multimodal therapeutic strategies. J Oncol 2010;2010:689893. [CrossRef]
39. Hatakeyama M, Tsudo M, Minamoto S, Kono T, Doi T, Miyata T, et al. Interleukin-2 receptor beta chain gene: generation of three receptor forms by cloned human alpha and beta chain cDNA's. Science 1989;244:551–6. [CrossRef]
40. Health Europa. Are T cells key to controlling COVID-19 and reducing its severity?. Available at: https://www.healtheuropa. eu/are-t-cells-key-to-controlling-covid-19-and- reducing-itsseverity/102815/. Accessed: Sep 17, 2020.
41. La Jolla Institute. Available at: https://www.lji.org/. Accessed Dec 18, 2020.
42. O'Connor P, Comi G, Montalban X, Antel J, Radue EW, de Vera A, et al; FTY720 D2201 Study Group. Oral fingolimod (FTY720) in multiple sclerosis: two-year results of a phase II extension study. Neurology 2009;72:73–9. [CrossRef]
43. Kappos L, Antel J, Comi G, Montalban X, O'Connor P, Polman CH, et al; FTY720 D2201 Study Group. Oral fingolimod (FTY720) for relapsing multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med 2006;355:1124–40. [CrossRef]
44. Rolin J, Sand KL, Knudsen E, Maghazachi AA. FTY720 and SEW2871 reverse the inhibitory effect of S1P on natural killer cell mediated lysis of K562 tumor cells and dendritic cells but not on cytokine release. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2010;59:575–86. [CrossRef]
45. Saraste M, Irjala H, Airas L. Expansion of CD56bright natural killer cells in the peripheral blood of multiple sclerosis patients treated with interferon-beta. Neurol Sci 2007;28:121–6.
46. Chen G, Wang SH, Converse CA. Glutathione increases interleukin-2 production in human lymphocytes. Int J Immunopharmacol 1994;16:755–60. [CrossRef]
47. Mahmoudpour SH, Jankowski M, Valerio L, Becker C, EspinolaKlein C, Konstantinides S, et al. Safety of low-dose subcutaneous recombinant interleukin-2: systematic review and metaanalysis of randomized controlled trials. Scientific Reports 2019;9:7145. [CrossRef]