Microbial Diversity and their Biofilm Formation Potential in Pipes of Water Distribution System
Microbes are ubiquitous in surface as well as in ground water and some of them can make their way into potable water distribution systems. Contaminated soil with human and animal fecal matter, ill-maintained water and sewage pipelines, poor sanitation and personal hygiene are the main factors responsible for the presence of microbial pathogens in the drinking water. The presence of water-borne microbes in the potable drinking water systems determines its quality. Common microbes present in contaminated water are Shigella, Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, Pseudomonas sp, Salmonella sp etc. The water-borne pathogens that reside and reproduce in water distribution system causes infection of gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract, skin, and lymph nodes. When these pathogens enter into the water distribution system pipelines they form biofilms. The formation of biofilm is a key component in microbial studies. Biofilm is the sessile aggregation of bacterial cells that adhere to each other on living or non-living surfaces and forms extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). The surface physico- chemical properties of both bacteria and substratum were important for the establishment of bacterial adhesion. Bacteria forming biofilms possesses different growth patterns, responds to specific micro-environmental conditions for the formation of structurally complex mature biofilms. In water distribution systems, adhesion of microbes to the water pipelines initiate biofilm formation which in return reduces the quality of potable water and increases the corrosion of pipes.
Ashbolt, N.J. (2015). Microbial contamination of drinking water and human health from community water
systems. Current Environmental Health Reports, 2(1): 95-106.
Batté, M., Appenzeller, B.M.R., Grandjean, D., Fass, S. and Gauthier et al. (2003). Biofilms in drinking water distribution systems. Reviews in Environmental Science and Biotechnology, 2(2-4): 147-168.
Berry, D., Xi, C. and L. Raskin (2006). Microbial ecology of drinking water distribution systems. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 17(3): 297-302.
Boe-Hansen, R. (2001). Microbial growth in drinking water distribution systems. Environment & Resources DTU. Technical University of Denmark.
Bowden, G.H.W. and Y.H. Li (1997). Nutritional influences on biofilm development. Advances in Dental Research, 11(1): 81-99.
Chowdhury, S. (2012). Heterotrophic bacteria in drinking water distribution system: A review. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 184(10): 6087-6137.
Crossley, K.B., Jefferson, K.K., Archer, G.L. and V.G. Fowler Jr. (2009). Staphylococci in Human Disease. 2.
De Vos, W.M. (2015). Microbial biofilms and the human intestinal microbiome. npj Biofilms and Microbiomes, 1:
15005.
Donlan, R.M. (2002). Biofilms: Microbial life on surfaces. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 8(9): 881.
Donlan, R.M., Pipes, W.O. and T.L. Yohe (1994). Biofilm formation on cast iron substrata in water distribution systems. Water Research, 28(6): 1497-1503.
Else, T.A., Pantle, C.R. and P.S. Amy (2003). Boundaries for biofilm formation: Humidity and temperature. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 69(8): 5006-5010.
Exner, M., Kramer, A., Lajoie, L., Gebel, J., Engelhart,S. and P. Hartemann (2005). Prevention and control of health care-associated waterborne infections in health care facilities. American Journal of Infection Control, 33(5): S26-S40.
Flemming, H.C. and G.G. Geesey (ed.) (1990). Biofouling and Biocorrosion in Industrial Water Systems. pp. 220. Springer-Verlag Publishers, Berlin, Germany.
Flemming, H.C., Wingender, J., Szewzyk, U., Steinberg, P., Rice, S.A. and Kjelleberg (2016). Biofilms: An emergent form of bacterial life. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 14(9): 563.
Flemming, H.C. (2011). Biofilm Highlights. Flemming, H.-C., Wingender, J. and Szewzyk, U. (eds), Springer, 81-109.
Guardian (2018). https://www.gwtltd.com/preventing-biofilm- formation/.
Gupta, P., Sarkar, S., Das, B., Bhattacharjee, S. and P. Tribedi (2016). Biofilm, pathogenesis and prevention—A journey to break the wall: A review. Archives of Microbiology, 198(1): 1-15.
Jamal, M., Tasneem, U., Hussain, T. and S. Andleeb (2015). Bacterial biofilm: Its composition, formation and role in human infections. Research and Reviews: Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 4(3): 1-15.
LeChevallier, M.W. (1990). Coliform regrowth in drinking water: A review. Journal – American Water Works Association, 82(11): 74-86.
LeChevallier, M.W., Cawthon, C.D. and R.G. Lee (1988). Factors promoting survival of bacteria in chlorinated water supplies. Applied and Environmental Microbiology,54(3): 649-654.
Liu, G., Verberk, J.Q.J.C. and J.C. Van Dijk (2013). Bacteriology of drinking water distribution systems: An integral and multidimensional review. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 97(21): 9265-9276.
Loveday, H.P., Wilson, J.A., Kerr, K., Pitchers, R., Walker, J.T. and J. Browne (2014). Association between healthcare water systems and Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections: A rapid systematic review. Journal of Hospital Infection, 86(1): 7-15.
Lowther, E.D. and R.H. Moser (1984). Detecting and eliminating coliform regrowth. Proc. 1984 AWWA WQTC, Denver, Colo.
Mah, T.F.C. and G.A. O’Toole (2001). Mechanisms of biofilm resistance to antimicrobial agents. Trends in Microbiology, 9(1): 34-39.
Mahapatra, A., Padhi, N., Mahapatra, D., Bhatt, M. and D. Sahoo et al. (2015). Study of biofilm in bacteria from water pipelines. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research: JCDR, 9(3): DC09.
Mattila-Sandholm, T. and G. Wirtanen (1992). Biofilm formation in the industry: A review. Food Reviews International, 8(4): 573-603.
Meyer, B. (2003). Approaches to prevention, removal and killing of biofilms. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 51(4): 249-253.
Nawrocki, J., Raczyk-Stanisławiak, U., Świetlik, J., Olejnik, A. and M.J. Sroka (2010). Corrosion in a distribution system: Steady water and its composition. Water Research, 44(6): 1863-1872.
Ortolano, G.A., McAlister, M.B., Angelbeck, J.A., Schaffer, J., Russell, R.L., Maynard, E. and B. Wenz (2005). Hospital water point-of-use filtration: A complementary strategy to reduce the risk of nosocomial infection. American Journal of Infection Control, 33: S1–S19.
O’Toole, G., Kaplan, H.B. and R. Kolter (2000). Biofilm formation as microbial development. Annual Reviews in Microbiology, 54(1): 49-79.
Sandle, T. (2017). https://www.americanpharmaceuticalreview. com/Featured-Articles/345440-The-Problem-of-Biofilms- and-Pharmaceutical-Water-Systems/.
Simoes, M., Simões, L.C. and M.J. Vieira (2010). A review of current and emergent biofilm control strategies. LWT- Food Science and Technology, 43(4): 573-583.
Szewzyk, U., Szewzyk, R., Manz, W. and K.H. Schleifer(2000). Microbiological safety of drinking water. Annual Reviews in Microbiology, 54(1): 81-127.
Tokajian, S.T., Hashwa, F.A., Hancock, I.C. and P.A. Zalloua(2005). Phylogenetic assessment of heterotrophic bacteria from a water distribution system using 16S rDNA sequencing. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 51(4): 325-335.
Yu, J., Kim, D. and T. Lee (2010). Microbial diversity in biofilms on water distribution pipes of different materials. Water Science and Technology, 61(1): 163-171.
Zhang, X.J. and W. Lu (2006). Control of biofilm growth in drinking water distribution system by biodegradable carbon and disinfectant residuals. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, 6(2): 147-151.