Prognostic Markers and Detection Approaches of Bladder Cancer
Bladder cancer (BC) is one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers in men worldwide. Numerous treatments of BC are available, but it is noteworthy that BC patients have heterogeneous responses to these treatments. Therefore, the prognostic markers, which are associated with clinical outcomes, are vital for formulating BC treatment plan. This review provides an overview of prognostic markers and their importance in early diagnosis and recurrence of BC. Apart from that, this review discusses the application of prognostic markers and their related population studies. A deeper understanding of these prognostic markers and their prognostic value would aid in designing treatment strategies, predicting response to treatment, and managing the clinical care for BC in future.
Cartwright LA, Dumenci L, Siminoff LA, et al., 2014, Cancer Patients’ Understanding of Prognostic Information. J Cancer Educ, 29:311–7. DOI: 10.1007/s13187-013-0603-9.
Schmidt JF, Valentin N, Nielsen SL, 1989, The Clinical Effect of Felodipine and Nifedipine in Raynaud’’s Phenomenon. Eur J Clin Pharmacol, 37:191–2. DOI: 10.1007/bf00558230.
Riley RD, Sauerbrei W, Altman DG, 2009, Prognostic Markers in Cancer: The Evolution of Evidence from Single Studies to Meta-analysis, and Beyond. Br J Cancer, 100:1219–29. DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6604999.
Rink M, Chun FK, Dahlem R, et al., 2012, Prognostic Role and HER2 Expression of Circulating Tumor Cells in Peripheral Blood of Patients Prior to Radical Cystectomy: A Prospective Study. Eur Urol, 61:810–7. DOI: 10.1016/j.eururo.2012.01.017.
Bonberg N, Pesch B, Behrens T, et al., 2014, Chromosomal Alterations in Exfoliated Urothelial Cells from Bladder Cancer Cases and Healthy Men: A Prospective Screening Study. BMC Cancer, 14:854. DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-14-854.
Andree KC, van Dalum G, Terstappen LW, 2016, Challenges in Circulating Tumor Cell Detection by the CellSearch System. Mol Oncol, 10:395–407. DOI: 10.1016/j.molonc.2015.12.002.
Liem E, Baard J, Cauberg EC, et al., 2017, Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization as Prognostic Predictor of Tumor Recurrence during Treatment with Bacillus Calmette-Guerin Therapy for Intermediate and High-risk Non-muscle-invasive Bladder Cancer. Med Oncol, 34:172. DOI: 10.1007/s12032-017-1033-z.
Jeon C, Kim M, Kwak C, et al., 2013, Prognostic Role of Survivin in Bladder Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. PLoS One, 8:e76719. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0076719.
Di Maida F, Mari A, Gesolfo CS, et al., 2019, Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) Cell Expression During Adjuvant Treatment After Transurethral Resection for Non-Muscle-Invasive Bladder Cancer: A New Potential Tool to Identify Patients at Higher Risk of Disease Progression. Clin Genitourin Cancer, 17:e751–8. DOI: 10.1016/j.clgc.2019.04.008.
Jackson AM, Ivshina AV, Senko O, et al., 1998, Prognosis of Intravesical Bacillus Calmette-Guerin Therapy for Superficial Bladder Cancer by Immunological Urinary Measurements: Statistically Weighted Syndrome Analysis. J Urol, 159:1054–63. DOI: 10.1016/s0022-5347(01)63835-7.
Watanabe E, Matsuyama H, Matsuda K, et al., 2003, Urinary Interleukin-2 May Predict Clinical Outcome of Intravesical Bacillus Calmette-Guerin Immunotherapy for Carcinoma In Situ of the Bladder. Cancer Immunol Immunother, 52:481–6. DOI: 10.1007/s00262-003-0384-9.
Gleichenhagen J, Arndt C, Casjens S, et al., 2018, Evaluation of a New Survivin ELISA and UBC((R)) Rapid for the Detection of Bladder Cancer in Urine. Int J Mol Sci, 19:226. DOI: 10.3390/ijms19010226.
Yang Y, Xu J, Zhang Q, 2018, Detection of Urinary Survivin Using a Magnetic Particles-based Chemiluminescence Immunoassay for the Preliminary Diagnosis of Bladder Cancer and Renal Cell Carcinoma Combined with LAPTM4B. Oncol Lett, 15:7923–33. DOI: 10.3892/ol.2018.8317.
Xu Y, Kim YH, Jeong P, et al., 2019, Urinary Cell-Free DNA IQGAP3/BMP4 Ratio as a Prognostic Marker for Non-Muscle-Invasive Bladder Cancer. Clin Genitourin Cancer, 17:e704–11. DOI: 10.1016/j.clgc.2019.04.001.
Liu S, Wu Y, Yang T, et al., 2016, Coexistence of YWHAZ Amplification Predicts Better Prognosis in Muscle-invasive Bladder Cancer with CDKN2A or TP53 Loss. Oncotarget, 7:34752–8. DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.9158.
Brisuda A, Pazourkova E, Soukup V, et al., 2016, Urinary Cell-Free DNA Quantification as Non-Invasive Biomarker in Patients with Bladder Cancer. Urol Int, 96:25–31. DOI: 10.1159/000438828.
Christensen E, Nordentoft I, Vang S, et al., 2018, Optimized Targeted Sequencing of Cell-free Plasma DNA from Bladder Cancer Patients. Sci Rep, 8:1917.
Wang K, Tian Y, Xu H, 2016, Improved Noninvasive Bladder Cancer Diagnosis using Urine Sediments and Novel DNA Methylation Biomarker Panels. Clin Lab, 62:327–36. DOI: 10.7754/clin.lab.2015.150602.
Soave A, Riethdorf S, Dahlem R, et al., 2017, A Nonrandomized, Prospective, Clinical Study on the Impact of Circulating Tumor Cells on Outcomes of Urothelial Carcinoma of the Bladder Patients Treated with Radical Cystectomy with or without Adjuvant Chemotherapy. Int J Cancer, 140:381–9. DOI: 10.1002/ijc.30445.
Chakraborty A, Dasari S, Long W, et al., 2019, Urine Protein Biomarkers for the Detection, Surveillance, and Treatment Response Prediction of Bladder Cancer. Am J Cancer Res, 9:1104–17.
Gazzaniga P, Gradilone A, de Berardinis E, et al., 2012, Prognostic Value of Circulating Tumor Cells in Nonmuscle Invasive Bladder Cancer: A CellSearch Analysis. Ann Oncol, 23:2352–6. DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mdr619.
Gazzaniga P, de Berardinis E, Raimondi C, et al., 2014, Circulating Tumor Cells Detection has Independent Prognostic Impact in High-risk Non-muscle Invasive Bladder Cancer. Int J Cancer, 135:1978–82. DOI: 10.1002/ijc.28830.
Pantel K, Brakenhoff RH, Brandt B, 2008, Detection, Clinical Relevance and Specific Biological Properties of Disseminating Tumour Cells. Nat Rev Cancer, 8:329–40. DOI: 10.1038/nrc2375.
Tseng JY, Yang CY, Liang SC, et al., 2014, Dynamic Changes in Numbers and Properties of Circulating Tumor Cells and their Potential Applications. Cancers (Basel), 6:2369–86.
Agnoletto C, Corrà F, Minotti L, et al., 2019, Heterogeneity in Circulating Tumor Cells: The Relevance of the Stem-Cell Subset. Cancers (Basel), 11:E483. DOI: 10.3390/cancers11040483.
Shen Z, Wu A, Chen X, 2017, Current Detection Technologies for Circulating Tumor Cells. Chem Soc Rev, 46:2038–56. DOI: 10.1039/c6cs00803h.
Bao QB, Liu J, Sun HB, et al., 2009, Clinical Value of Aneusomy of Chromosomes in Exfoliated Urothelial Cells to Predict the Recurrence of Superficial Bladder Cancer After Complete Transurethral Resection. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi, 89:548–51.
Yang C, Xia BR, Jin WL, et al., 2019, Circulating Tumor Cells in Precision Oncology: Clinical Applications in Liquid Biopsy and 3D Organoid Model. Cancer Cell Int, 19:341. DOI: 10.1186/s12935-019-1067-8.
De Rubis G, Rajeev, KS, Bebawy M, 2019, Liquid Biopsies in Cancer Diagnosis, Monitoring, and Prognosis. Trends Pharmacol Sci, 40:172–86. DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2019.01.006.
Heitzer E, Perakis S, Geigl JB, et al., 2017, The Potential of Liquid Biopsies for the Early Detection of Cancer. NPJ Precis Oncol, 1:36. DOI: 10.1038/s41698-017-0039-5.
Kim TJ, Moon HW, Kang S, et al., 2019, Urovysion FISH Could Be Effective and Useful Method to Confirm the Identity of Cultured Circulating Tumor Cells from Bladder Cancer Patients. J Cancer, 10:3259–66. DOI: 10.7150/jca.30079.
Garg H, Suri P, Gupta JC, et al., 2016, Survivin: A Unique Target for Tumor Therapy. Cancer Cell Int, 16:49.
Hanahan D, Weinberg RA, 2011, Hallmarks of Cancer: The Next Generation. Cell, 144:646–74. DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2011.02.013.
Senol S, Yildirim A, Ceyran B, et al., 2015, Prognostic Significance of Survivin, Beta-catenin and p53 Expression in Urothelial Carcinoma. Bosn J Basic Med Sci, 15:7–14. DOI: 10.17305/bjbms.2015.556.
Wang J, Zhang X, Wei P, et al., 2014, Livin, Survivin and Caspase 3 as Early Recurrence Markers in Non-muscle-invasive Bladder Cancer. World J Urol, 32:1477–84. DOI: 10.1007/s00345-014-1246-0.
Sigismund S, Avanzato D, Lanzetti L, 2018, Emerging Functions of the EGFR in Cancer. Mol Oncol, 12:3–20. DOI: 10.1002/1878-0261.12155.
Hashmi AA, Hussain ZF, Irfan M, et al., 2018, Prognostic Significance of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) Over Expression in Urothelial Carcinoma of Urinary Bladder. BMC Urol, 18:59. DOI: 10.1186/s12894-018-0373-0.
Long X, Zu X, Li Y, et al., 2016, Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor and Ki-67 as Predictive Biomarkers Identify Patients Who Will Be More Sensitive to Intravesical Instillations for the Prevention of Bladder Cancer Recurrence after Radical Nephroureterectomy. PLoS One, 11:e0166884. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0166884.
Ushach I, Zlotnik A, 2016, Biological role of Granulocyte Macrophage Colony-stimulating Factor (GM-CSF) and Macrophage Colony-stimulating Factor (M-CSF) on Cells of the Myeloid Lineage. J Leukoc Biol, 100:481–9. DOI: 10.1189/jlb.3ru0316-144r.
Miyake M, Hori S, Ohnishi S, et al., 2019, Supplementary Granulocyte Macrophage Colony-stimulating Factor to Chemotherapy and Programmed Death-ligand 1 Blockade Decreases Local Recurrence after Surgery in Bladder Cancer. Cancer Sci, 110:3315–27. DOI: 10.1111/cas.14158.
Sanchez-Carbayo M, Urrutia M, Romani R, et al., 2001, Serial Urinary IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, TNFalpha, UBC, CYFRA 21-1 and NMP22 during Follow-up of Patients with Bladder Cancer Receiving Intravesical BCG. Anticancer Res, 21:3041–7. DOI: 10.1016/s0022-5347(05)66328-8.
Xu X, Li P, Fu D, et al., 2018, Combined Use of Urinary Survivin Detection and Liquid-based Cytology for the Early Diagnosis of Bladder Urothelial Carcinoma. Oncol Lett, 15:7739–43. DOI: 10.3892/ol.2018.8326.
Chen D, Xu J, Zhang Q, 2018, Detection of Survivin Expression in Bladder Cancer and Renal Cell Carcinoma Using Specific Monoclonal Antibodies. Oncol Rep, 39:2817–28. DOI: 10.3892/or.2018.6359.
Chang Y, Xu J, Zhang Q, 2017, Microplate Magnetic Chemiluminescence Immunoassay for Detecting Urinary Survivin in Bladder Cancer. Oncol Lett, 14:4043–52. DOI: 10.3892/ol.2017.6675.
Wang LC, Xylinas E, Kent Mt, et al., 2014, Combining Smoking Information and Molecular Markers Improves Prognostication in Patients with Urothelial Carcinoma of the Bladder. Urol Oncol, 32:433–40.
Bielli P, Panzeri V, Lattanzio R, et al., 2018, The Splicing Factor PTBP1 Promotes Expression of Oncogenic Splice Variants and Predicts Poor Prognosis in Patients with Non-muscle-Invasive Bladder Cancer. Clin Cancer Res, 24:5422–32. DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-17-3850.
Abbosh PH, Rosenberg JE, Plimack ER, 2016, Circulating Biomarkers to Guide Systemic Therapy for Urothelial Carcinoma. Urol Oncol, 34:502–9.
Bettegowda C, Sausen M, Leary RJ, et al., 2014, Detection of Circulating Tumor DNA in Early and Late-stage Human Malignancies. Sci Transl Med, 6:ra224. DOI: 10.1016/j.urolonc.2016.08.019.
Dawson SJ, Tsui DW, Murtaza M, et al., 2013, Analysis of Circulating Tumor DNA to Monitor Metastatic Breast Cancer. N Engl J Med, 368:1199–209.
Christensen E, Birkenkamp-Demtröder K, Sethi H, et al., 2019, Early Detection of Metastatic Relapse and Monitoring of Therapeutic Efficacy by Ultra-Deep Sequencing of Plasma Cell-Free DNA in Patients With Urothelial Bladder Carcinoma. J Clin Oncol, 37:1547–57. DOI: 10.1158/1538-7445.am2019-913.
Kuang S, Li H, Feng J, et al., 2019, Correlation of BRCA2 Gene Mutation and Prognosis as Well as Variant Genes in Invasive Urothelial Carcinoma of the Bladder. Cancer Biomark, 25:203–12. DOI: 10.3233/cbm-182379.
Matsuyama H, Ikemoto K, Eguchi S, et al., 2014, Copy Number Aberrations Using Multicolour Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH) for Prognostication in Non-muscle-invasive Bladder Cancer (NIMBC). BJU Int, 113:662–7. DOI: 10.1111/bju.12232.
Sharma S, Kelly TK, Jones PA, 2010, Epigenetics in Cancer. Carcinogenesis, 31:27–36.
Laird PW, 2005, Cancer epigenetics. Hum Mol Genet, 14: R65–76.
Negraes PD, Favaro FP, Camargo JL, et al., 2008, DNA Methylation Patterns in Bladder Cancer and Washing Cell Sediments: A Perspective for Tumor Recurrence Detection. BMC Cancer, 8:238. DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-8-238.
Gao T, Wang S, He B, et al., 2012, The Association of RAS Association Domain Family Protein1A (RASSF1A) Methylation States and Bladder Cancer Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. PLoS One, 7:e48300. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0048300.
Kim JS, Chae Y, Ha YS, et al., 2012, Ras Association Domain Family 1A: A Promising Prognostic Marker in Recurrent Nonmuscle Invasive Bladder Cancer. Clin Genitourin Cancer, 10:114–20. DOI: 10.1016/j.clgc.2011.12.003.
Wang Y, Yu Y, Ye R, et al., 2016, An Epigenetic Biomarker Combination of PCDH17 and POU4F2 Detects Bladder Cancer Accurately by Methylation Analyses of Urine Sediment DNA in Han Chinese. Oncotarget, 7: 2754–64. DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.6666.
Renard I, Joniau S, van Cleynenbreugel B, et al., 2010, Identification and Validation of the Methylated TWIST1 and NID2 Genes through Real-time Methylation-specific Polymerase Chain Reaction Assays for the Noninvasive Detection of Primary Bladder Cancer in Urine Samples. Eur Urol, 58:96–104. DOI: 10.1016/j.eururo.2009.07.041.
Bayramov B, Gunes S, Buyukalpelli R, et al., 2018, Promoter Methylation Analysis of CDH1 and p14ARF Genes in Patients with Urothelial Bladder Cancer. Onco Targets Ther, 11:4189–96. DOI: 10.2147/ott.s158259.
van der Heijden AG, Mengual L, Ingelmo-Torres M, et al., 2018, Urine Cell-based DNA Methylation Classifier for Monitoring Bladder Cancer. Clin Epigenetics, 10:71. DOI: 10.1016/s1569-9056(18)31829-3.
Szarvas T, Nyirády P, Ogawa O, et al., 2018, Urinary Protein Markers for the Detection and Prognostication of Urothelial Carcinoma. Methods Mol Biol, 1655:251–73. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-7234-0_19.